Response style versus crime-specific cognition: predicting disciplinary adjustment and recidivism in male and female offenders with the PICTS

Four samples were used to evaluate the incremental validity of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) General Criminal Thinking (GCT) score and Proactive (P) and Reactive (R) composite scales vis-á-vis response style in predicting disciplinary adjustment and recidivism. Purified Confusion (Cf(p)) and Defensiveness (Df(p)) validity scales were constructed by eliminating items from the PICTS Confusion and Defensiveness scales that overlapped with GCT, P, and R. The four-item Cf(p) and Df(p) scales were employed as measures of response style and entered into binomial probit regression analyses alongside GCT, P, and R. The GCT score consistently predicted disciplinary adjustment and recidivism in male and female offenders when included in regression equations with Cf(p) and Df(p). The P scale only displayed incremental validity relative to Cf(p) and Df(p) in large groups of participants, whereas the R scale was incapable of predicting recidivism in female offenders when paired with Cf(p) and Df(p).     

Incremental validity of the psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles as a predictor of continuous and dichotomous measures of recidivism

Postrelease recidivism data were collected on 137 male inmates released 1 to 72 months after completing the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) in follow-ups lasting 6 to 55 months. When a dichotomous measure of recidivism (0, 1+ arrests) was employed, Entitlement (En) was the only PICTS thinking-style scale to achieve significance after age, prior arrests, time at risk in the community, and the PICTS Superoptimism (So) scale were controlled in a binary logistic regression analysis. Both the Cutoff (Co) and En scales proved significant in predicting a continuous measure of recidivism (range = 0 to 6) after age, prior arrests, time at risk, and the So scale were controlled in a sequential linear regression analysis. Whereas the En scale displayed mixed incremental validity results relative to the Co scale, the Co scale failed to achieve incremental validity relative to the En scale.     

The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS): a review and meta-analysis

The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) is an 80-item self-report measure designed to assess crime-supporting cognitive patterns. Data from men (N = 450) and women (N = 227) offenders indicate that the PICTS thinking, validity, and content scales possess moderate to moderately high internal consistency and test-retest stability. Meta-analyses of studies in which the PICTS has been administered reveal that besides correlating with measures of past criminality, several of the PICTS thinking and content scales are capable of predicting future adjustment/release outcome at a low but statistically significant level, and two scales (En, CUR) are sensitive to program-assisted change beyond what control subjects achieve spontaneously. The factor structure of the PICTS is then examined with the aid of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the results of which denote the presence of two major and two minor factors.     

Construct validity of the psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles in relationship to the PAI, disciplinary adjustment, and program completion

We evaluated the convergent and discriminant validity of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS; Walters, 1995) in a group of 199 maximum security prisoners. As anticipated, the PICTS Confusion scale correlated with the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) Negative Impression scale, whereas the PICTS Defensiveness scale paralleled the PAI Positive Impression scale. Also as predicted, a greater portion of the PICTS thinking style scales correlated with the PAI Antisocial Features scale than correlated with the PAI Somatic Complaints, Anxiety, Depression, Mania, Paranoia, and Schizophrenia scales. When the PICTS composite scales were converged onto behavioral indexes, modest statistically significant relationships surfaced between the PICTS Reactive scale and a record of disciplinary infractions and between the PICTS Proactive scale and program completion.     

The Relationship Between Masculinity,Femininity, and Criminal Thinking in Male and Female Offenders

The 4 factor scales of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) were correlated with the Femininity and Masculinity scales of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) in 100 adult male (33% Caucasian, 44% African American, 21% Hispanic, 1% other) and 100 adult female (50% Caucasian, 30% African American, 8% Hispanic, 12% other) federal prison inmates. It was hypothesized that the BSRI Masculinity scale would correlate negatively with the PICTS problem avoidance scale and positively with the PICTS self-deception/assertion scale, and that the BSRI Femininity scale would correlate negatively with the PICTS interpersonal hostility scale and positively with PICTS denial of harm scale. In male inmates, as predicted, the BSRI masculinity scale correlated negatively with the PICTS problem avoidance scale and positively with the self-deception/assertion scale, although the latter coefficient fell short of statistical significance. In the case of female inmates the BSRI femininity scale correlated positively with denial of harm but failed to correlate significantly with interpersonal hostility. The implications of these results are discussed.     

Toward a hierarchical model of criminal thinking: evidence from item response theory and confirmatory factor analysis

Item response theory (IRT) methods were applied to items from the 80-item Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS; G. D. Walters, 1995) to determine how well they measure the latent trait of criminal thinking in a group of 2,872 male medium security prison inmates. Preliminary analyses revealed that the 64 PICTS thinking style items, 32 PICTS proactive criminal thinking items, and 24 PICTS reactive criminal thinking items were sufficiently unidimensional to meet the local independence requirements of IRT. The PICTS was fitted to a 2-parameter logistic-graded response IRT model, the results of which showed that the 8 items measuring denial of harm (Sentimentality) displayed weak discrimination (a < 0.5), whereas most of the proactive and reactive items displayed moderate to good discrimination (a > 1.0). Information function analysis revealed that all 3 components of a hierarchical model of criminal thinking--PICTS total scale, PICTS proactive factor, and PICTS reactive factor--displayed greater precision at higher rather than lower levels of the trait dimension. The study findings indicate that items from the PICTS Sentimentality scale do a poor job of measuring general criminal thinking, whereas items from the other 7 PICTS thinking style scales provide their most precise estimates at the upper end of the trait dimension.     

Taking the next step: combining incrementally valid indicators to improve recidivism prediction

The possibility of combining indicators to improve recidivism prediction was evaluated in a sample of released federal prisoners randomly divided into a derivation subsample (n = 550) and a cross-validation subsample (n = 551). Five incrementally valid indicators were selected from five domains: demographic (age), historical (prior convictions), adjustment (prior incident reports), rating scale (Violation scale of the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form), and self-report (General Criminal Thinking score from the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles). After converting scores on the five indicators to a common scale (z score), two combined scores were calculated: a simple summed score (unweighted summed score) and a score computed using beta weights from a Cox survival analysis of the derivation subsample (weighted summed score). Correlational and receiver operating characteristic analyses revealed that the unweighted and weighted summed scores produced equivalent results and that both improved significantly on the results of the five contributing indicators.     

Psychometric Validation of a Simplified Form of the PICTS for Low-Reading Level Populations

The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) is one of the most widely used measures of criminal thinking. Although the PICTS has adequate psychometric qualities with many general population inmates, the measurement confound of reading ability may decrease its construct validity in low-literacy inmates. To help resolve this confound, we present psychometric evaluation of a simplified version of the PICTS (PICTS-SV) in which item language was simplified but item content was preserved. We first conducted Lexile analyses to confirm the reading level of the PICTS-SV is significantly lower than the original PICTS (i.e., sixth grade versus ninth grade). We then tested a bifactor model to confirm the PICTS-SV contains the same two factors as the original PICTS: proactive and reactive criminal thinking. These PICTS-SV results are commensurate with the factor structure of the original PICTS. Results suggest the PICTS-SV is a valid alternative for assessing criminal thinking in inmates with low reading ability.     

Predicting institutional adjustment with the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form and the Antisocial Features and Aggression scales of the PAI

I included scores on the Antisocial Features (ANT) and Aggression (AGG) scales of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) and ratings on the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form (LCSF; Walters, White, & Denney, 1991) along with age and prior disciplinary record in a series of negative binomial regression analyses of total, nonaggressive, and aggressive incident reports (IRs) received in a 2-year follow-up of 120 male maximum security federal prisoners. Findings indicated that the AGG scale, but not the LCSF or ANT, predicted total and nonaggressive IR counts. The LCSF achieved significant receiver operating characteristic (ROC) results in predicting dichotomized aggressive IRs, the ANT achieved significant ROC results in predicting dichotomized total and nonaggressive IRs, and the AGG achieved significant ROC results in predicting all 3 dichotomized categories of IR. Supplemental analyses revealed that the AGG continued to predict total and nonaggressive IRs when the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS; Walters, 1995) Proactive scale was included in the negative binomial regression but not when the PICTS Reactive scale was included in the negative binomial regression.     

Parenting Programs for the Prevention of Child Physical Abuse Recurrence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Child physical abuse is an issue of global concern. Conservative estimates set global prevalence of this type of maltreatment at 25%, its consequences and cost to society escalating with increasing frequency and severity of episodes. Syntheses of the evidence on parenting programs for reducing rates of physical abuse recidivism have, to date, not been able to establish effectiveness. Paucity of data and inconsistent inclusion criteria in past reviews made meta-analysis often impossible or uninformative. The current systematic review updates prior reviews and overcomes some of the methodological issues they encountered by pooling trial-level data from a well-defined scope of trials of parenting interventions aimed at preventing the re-abuse of children by parents with substantiated or suspected physical abuse history. Randomized controlled trials and rigorous non-randomized designs were sought via nine online databases, two trial registries, several clearinghouses and contact with experts. A total of fourteen studies of variable quality were included in this review, four of which had outcomes that enabled meta-analysis. Overall, this review presents evidence supporting the effectiveness of parenting behavioral programs based on social learning theory for reducing hard markers of child physical abuse recidivism. Meta-analysis found that the absolute risk reduction in risk of recidivism was 11 percentage points less for maltreating parents who undergo parenting programs (RD = ?0.11, 95% CI [?0.22, ?0.004], p = 0.043, I ² = 28.9%). However, the pooled effect size was not statistically significant when calculated as a risk ratio (0.76, 95% CI [0.54, 1.07], I ² = 38.4%). Policy makers and practitioners should be made aware that this intervention method is backed by promising evidence featuring modest yet significant reductions in hard markers of child physical abuse, even though the methodological robustness of these findings should be further explored in future research.     

A theoretically informed meta-analysis of the risk for general and violent recidivism for mentally disordered offenders

Mentally disordered offenders (MDOs) pose a significant challenge for forensic and correctional staff charged with managing them in a safe and humane manner. As with non-disordered offenders, it is important to identify the factors that are predictive of recidivism and can serve as treatment targets for MDOs. The present meta-analysis evaluated the relative predictive validity of the risk/need domains from the General Personality and Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) perspective and variables taken from the clinical perspective. The search yielded a total of 126 studies reporting on 96 unique samples (N = 23,900). Results indicated that all risk/need domains under the GPCSL perspective were significantly related to both general and violent recidivism. In contrast, the majority of clinical variables (with the exception of antisocial personality/psychopathy) were not predictive of either outcome. These findings emphasize the importance of identifying appropriate risk factors for MDOs.     

Treatment Effect on Recidivism for Juveniles Who Have Sexually Offended: a Multilevel Meta-Analysis

The current study investigated the effect on recidivism of treatment aimed at juveniles who have sexually offended. It also assessed the potential moderating effect of type of recidivism, and several treatment, participant and study characteristics. In total, 14 published and unpublished primary studies, making use of a comparison group and reporting on official recidivism rates, were included in a multilevel meta-analysis. This resulted in the use of 77 effect sizes, and 1726 participants. A three-level meta-analytic model was used to calculate the combined effect sizes (Cohens d) and to perform moderator analyses. Study quality was assessed with the EPHPP Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies. A moderate effect size was found (d = 0.37), indicating that the treatment groups achieved an estimated relative reduction in recidivism of 20.5% as compared to comparison groups. However, after controlling for publication bias, a significant treatment effect was no longer found. Type of recidivism did not moderate the effect of treatment, indicating that treatment groups were equally effective for all types of recidivism. Also, no moderating effects of participant or treatment characteristics were found. Regarding study characteristics, a shorter follow up time showed a trend for larger effect sizes, and the effect size calculation based on proportions yielded larger effect sizes than calculation via mean frequency of offending. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.     

The assessment of incarcerated sexual delinquents’ risk of recidivism

IntroductionThe present study examined the possibility of assessing the risk of sexual recidivism on the basis of static and dynamic factors.ObjectiveA comparison was carried out of detainees on the basis of their scores on a predictive scale of risk of recidivism, on their empathy towards the victim, on their attributive style, and on their self-esteem.MethodThree samples of detainees were compared: two samples of individuals guilty of sexual crime (one sample having committed the aggression towards adults, the second towards children under fifteen years of age) and a control group composed of non-sexual delinquents.ResultsResults showed that sexual offenders targeting children had a lower risk of recidivism than sexual offenders of adults. However, when considering only the recidivists, no difference was found in risk between the two populations.ConclusionIn conclusion, some of the dynamic factors that were analyzed could be retained to complete the static factors in predictive scales of risk of recidivism.     

The evolutionary role of self-deceptive enhancement as a protective factor against antisocial cognitions

This study investigates the relationship between self-deception and variables associated with antisociality in the general population (i.e., mating effort, antisocial thinking, psychopathy, and personality), seeking to provide an evolutionary explanation for how self-deception might influence antisocial thinking. The Mating Effort Scale (MES); an adjusted version of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS); the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP); the NEO-Five Factor Inventory-Revised (NEO-FFI-R), and the Paulhus Deception Scales (PDS) were administered to 95 participants (33 males, 62 females, mean age = 36.4 years). Self-deceptive enhancement correlated significantly and negatively with Neuroticism (r = −.30, p < 0.01), and positively with Openness (r = .27, p < 0.05) and Conscientiousness (r = .43, p < 0.01). Mating effort related primarily to the PICTS and self-reported psychopathy. Factor analysis of the scales produced two underlying components; ‘careless non-cooperation’ (defined by impulsive antisociality) and ‘careful cooperation’ (reflecting dutifulness, emotional stability, and social desirability). Our results suggest self-deceptive enhancement may be a protective factor against antisocial thinking and behaviour, and that this is impeded by high neuroticism and impulsive thinking.     

School programs targeting stress management in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis

Introduction

This meta-analysis evaluates the effect of school programs targeting stress management or coping skills in school children.

Methods

Articles were selected through a systematic literature search. Only randomized controlled trials or quasi-experimental studies were included. The standardized mean differences (SMDs) between baseline and final measures were computed for experimental and control groups. Experimental groups were groups that either received an intervention of (a) relaxation training, (b) social problem solving, (c) social adjustment and emotional self-control, or (d) a combination of these interventions. If no baseline measurement was available, SMDs were calculated between final measures of the groups. The overall pooled effect size was calculated and the pooled effect sizes of improvement on stress, coping, (social) behavior, and self-efficacy by random effects meta-analysis. The dependence of the results on study characteristics (i.e. methodological quality and type of intervention) was evaluated using meta-regression analysis.

Results

Nineteen publications met the inclusion criteria of controlled trials for class programs, teaching coping skills or stress management. Overall effect size for the programs was − 1.51 [95% confidence interval (CI) − 2.29, − 0.73], indicating a positive effect. However, heterogeneity was significant (p < .001). Sensitivity analyses showed that study quality and type of intervention were sources of heterogeneity influencing the overall result (p values < .001). The heterogeneity in quality may be associated with methodological diversity and differences in outcome assessments, rather than variety in treatment effect. Effect was calculated per intervention type, and positive effects were found for stress symptoms with a pooled effect size of − 0.865 (95% CI: − 1.229, − 0.502) and for coping with a pooled effect size of − 3.493 (95% CI: − 6.711, − 0.275).

Conclusion

It is tentatively concluded that school programs targeting stress management or coping skills are effective in reducing stress symptoms and enhancing coping skills. Future research should use clear quality criteria and strive for less diversity in methodology and outcome assessment.     

Children's antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Unprecedented numbers of children experience parental incarceration worldwide. Families and children of prisoners can experience multiple difficulties after parental incarceration, including traumatic separation, loneliness, stigma, confused explanations to children, unstable childcare arrangements, strained parenting, reduced income, and home, school, and neighborhood moves. Children of incarcerated parents often have multiple, stressful life events before parental incarceration. Theoretically, children with incarcerated parents may be at risk for a range of adverse behavioral outcomes. A systematic review was conducted to synthesize empirical evidence on associations between parental incarceration and children's later antisocial behavior, mental health problems, drug use, and educational performance. Results from 40 studies (including 7,374 children with incarcerated parents and 37,325 comparison children in 50 samples) were pooled in a meta-analysis. The most rigorous studies showed that parental incarceration is associated with higher risk for children's antisocial behavior, but not for mental health problems, drug use, or poor educational performance. Studies that controlled for parental criminality or children's antisocial behavior before parental incarceration had a pooled effect size of OR = 1.4 (p < .01), corresponding to about 10% increased risk for antisocial behavior among children with incarcerated parents, compared with peers. Effect sizes did not decrease with number of covariates controlled. However, the methodological quality of many studies was poor. More rigorous tests of the causal effects of parental incarceration are needed, using randomized designs and prospective longitudinal studies. Criminal justice reforms and national support systems might be needed to prevent harmful consequences of parental incarceration for children.     

The evolutionary role of self-deceptive enhancement as a protective factor against antisocial cognitions

This study investigates the relationship between self-deception and variables associated with antisociality in the general population (i.e., mating effort, antisocial thinking, psychopathy, and personality), seeking to provide an evolutionary explanation for how self-deception might influence antisocial thinking. The Mating Effort Scale (MES); an adjusted version of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS); the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP); the NEO-Five Factor Inventory-Revised (NEO-FFI-R), and the Paulhus Deception Scales (PDS) were administered to 95 participants (33 males, 62 females, mean age = 36.4 years). Self-deceptive enhancement correlated significantly and negatively with Neuroticism (r = −.30, p < 0.01), and positively with Openness (r = .27, p < 0.05) and Conscientiousness (r = .43, p < 0.01). Mating effort related primarily to the PICTS and self-reported psychopathy. Factor analysis of the scales produced two underlying components; ‘careless non-cooperation’ (defined by impulsive antisociality) and ‘careful cooperation’ (reflecting dutifulness, emotional stability, and social desirability). Our results suggest self-deceptive enhancement may be a protective factor against antisocial thinking and behaviour, and that this is impeded by high neuroticism and impulsive thinking.     

The moral reasoning of juvenile delinquents: A meta-analysis

To test the hypothesized immaturity of juvenile delinquents' moral reasoning, the results of 15 studies of the moral reasoning of juvenile delinquents were integrated quantitatively using meta-analysis. Hedges and Olkin (1985) methods were used to (a) compute effect sizes, (b) test the homogeneity of the obtained effect sizes, and (c) test the statistical significance of the pooled mean effect size. The results supported the hypothesis that the moral reasoning of juvenile delinquents is immature. It was concluded that several other issues are in need of investigation.     

Review, critique, and synthesis of personality theory in motivation to sexually assault

A widely-cited meta-analysis of recidivism amongst adult male perpetrators or sexual assult [Hanson and Bussiere, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 66 (1998) 348–362] found that the presence of any personality disorder (APA, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-III-R. (1987); [APA, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV (1994)] was the only variable to significantly predict sexual recidivism in a category measuring “Psychological Maladjustment” (r₊=.16, n=315). The relationship between personality disturbance and new sexual offenses is undoubtedly a dynamic relationship that deserves exploration. This review and critique of theory covers two theories of personality: (1) a psychoanalytic theory of rapist personality offered by Groth [Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender. (1979), New York: Plenum] and (2) a general biosocial theory or personality disturbance offered by Millon [Disorders of Personality: DSM-IV and Beyond. (1996). New York: Wiley]. Theory offered by Groth is critiqued and limitations considered. Theory offered by Millon is offered and the two approaches are synthesized to suggest possible causes of characteristic psychological disturbance associated with perpetration of sexual assault. Applications for research and practice are considered, and implications of this line of research for risk assessment and sexual assault prevention are reviewed.     

Does intra-individual change predict offender recidivism? Searching for the Holy Grail in assessing offender change

Offender rehabilitation effectively reduces recidivism for treatment groups compared to control groups, but there is less evidence demonstrating that intra-individual changes are related to reductions in risk. We review and critique academic and government literature linking individual change scores to recidivism, focusing on three key treatment domains: cognition, violence, and substance misuse. Database searches identified 378 studies measuring change, but only 53 studies yielding 49 explicit tests of the relationship between intra-individual change scores and recidivism outcome. Of the 49 available tests, 26 effect sizes (53.1%) were significant, ranging from small (d = 0.06) to large (d = 1.48). Across all domains, change variables significantly related to recidivism included known dynamic risk factors: antisocial attitudes, antisocial beliefs, antisocial associates, antisocial personality, social support, and substance misuse. Two additional findings centered on changes in negative emotion and successful treatment process. This review further suggests there is a need to utilize better measurement strategies and more sophisticated constructs. Additional practical, theoretical, and methodological implications are discussed.