Gender and aggression I: Perceptions of aggression

To investigate how gender and ethnicity influence evaluation, perceptions, and stereotyping of aggression, two studies were conducted with 115 college students (56% male; 50% Anglo and 26% Hispanic) and 79 individuals (72% male; 92% Anglo) who worked on a military base. Participants were asked to respond to four scenarios depicting aggressive interactions in which the gender of the protagonists varied, give their perceptions of 25 potentially aggressive incidents, and answer questions concerning stereotypes of gender related to these incidents and personal aggressive behaviors. Consistent with previous research on gender and aggression, both studies found that the aggressor, target, and respondent all affected perceptions of aggression and likelihood of aggressive behaviors. Aggression from a male and aggression directed towards a female were particularly likely to be evaluated negatively. Age and educational level were both negatively related to tolerance for aggression, and Anglo vs. Hispanic ethnicity was also associated with perceptions of aggression.We would like to thank Angela Bennett, Gail Bliss, Kayleigh Carabajal, Julie Depree, Carmen Gonzales, Deborah Good, Scott Griffin, Gladys Herrera, George Selix, Ruth Tangman, and Jon Woodland for their assistance with the development, distribution, and coding of the questionnaire.     

Media depictions of physical and relational aggression: connections with aggression in young adults' romantic relationships

Various studies have found that viewing physical or relational aggression in the media can impact subsequent engagement in aggressive behavior. However, this has rarely been examined in the context of relationships. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to examine the connection between viewing various types of aggression in the media and perpetration of aggression against a romantic partner. A total of 369 young adults completed a variety of questionnaires asking for their perpetration of various forms of relationship aggression. Participants' exposure to both physical and relational aggression in the media was also assessed. As a whole, we found a relationship between viewing aggression in the media and perpetration of aggression; however, this depended on the sex of the participant and the type of aggression measured. Specifically, exposure to physical violence in the media was related to engagement in physical aggression against their partner only for men. However, exposure to relational aggression in the media was related to romantic relational aggression for both men and women.     

Physical and psychological aggression in dating relationships in Spanish university students

The presence of violent behaviors of a psychological and physical nature in dating relations was analyzed in a sample of Spanish university students between 18 and 27 years of age. The results indicate a high prevalence of both kinds of aggression in interpersonal relationships, revealing important typology differences between the sexes. Violent psychological behaviors (characterized by the presence of verbal aggression and coercive and jealous behaviors) and physical aggression were significantly higher in women, though the consequences of physical aggression were worse for the women's health. The implications of the results and their possible relation with more severe violent acts in more stable, emotional relationships are discussed.     

Gender-related inequalities in the division of family work in close relationships: A social psychological perspective

We offer a social psychological perspective on gender-related inequalities in close relationships and integrate two lines of research that have focused on the intrapersonal perceptions and interpersonal consequences respectively of the gendered division of labour. We start with a brief summary of research on gender-related inequalities in the division of labour and discuss prior explanations and paradigms. We then address the extent to which spouses consider the division of labour as fair and the factors that contribute to perceptions of (un)fairness. Central to our argument is the distributive justice framework (<citeref rid="b76">Major, 1987</citeref>, <citeref rid="b77">1993</citeref>; <citeref rid="b113">Thompson, 1991</citeref>) which claims that fairness judgements are affected by people's wants and values, comparison standards, and justifications. In the following section, we address the question of whether dissatisfaction over the division of labour causes relationship conflict and how couples manage these conflicts. The main argument is that conflict over the division of labour generally comprises an asymmetrical conflict structure (with wives as complainants and husbands as defenders of the status quo), which elicits asymmetrical conflict interaction patterns (i.e., demand/withdraw interaction) that result in asymmetrical outcomes (i.e., status quo maintenance). Finally, we summarise the main conclusions and address contributions to theory and research as well as directions for further research.     

Physical activity participation and physical aggression in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundAggressive behaviour is a substantial behavioural problem in children and adolescents. This review systematically summarises the current evidence on the relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour and quantifies the effects of physical activity interventions on aggression in children and adolescents.MethodsStudies were identified through a search of five electronic databases (PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, CINAHL and Web of Science) with combinations of three groups of keywords. Two independent reviewers screened and extracted data from the individual studies. The reporting quality and publication bias were assessed. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was systematically summarized. Data (effect sizes) were pooled to investigate the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour. A moderator meta-analysis was performed to identify potential moderators of the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour.ResultsNineteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was mixed. A significant reduction in aggressive behaviour was observed after physical activity interventions (k = 8, SMD = −0.53, 95% CI [−0.27, −0.79], p < 0.001). The moderator meta-analysis showed that physical activity interventions involving team-based physical activity had greater effects than those involving individual-based physical activity (β = 0.42, SE = 0.18, p = 0.02). In addition, interventions involving physical activity alone were more effective in reducing aggressive behaviour than those that combined physical activity with other activities such as a philosophy course (β = −0.63, SE = 0.11, p < 0.001).ConclusionThe current meta-analysis presents evidence for the effect of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Physical activity–only interventions involving team-based physical activity might be used for preventing or reducing aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Possible mechanisms, methodological strengths and weaknesses, implications, and suggestions for future studies were discussed.     

Rage and aggression in youth: A self psychological perspective

The conceptual development of self psychology has emphasized that traditional psychoanalytic drives (sexuality, aggression) become pathological in their expression when self-selfobject ties at crucial developmental periods are problematic, flawed or damaged. This theory was derived from Kohut's psychoanalytic work with adult patients and not from direct observation of behaviorally and emotionally disturbed youth. This paper examines the experience of the self and its relationships in the development of aggressive behavior in children and adolescents. It argues from a largely self psychological perspective that rage and aggression in many youth may be conceptualized as reactions to actual or threatened loss of tenuously held selfobject relationships that render the self feeling anxious, helpless and without value. The aggression attempts to restore cohesion and self-value by punishing the deficient selfobject, nullifying its actions and/or by compelling the selfobject (or substitute) to reverse the behavior or deed that produced the initial self-selfobject rupture.     

Being better than others but otherwise perfectly normal: Perceptions of uniqueness and similarity in close relationships

The current research addresses individuals' self-generated thoughts regarding their own and others' relationships, examining the ways in which perceptions of uniqueness and similarity are manifested in judgments regarding own and others' responses to dissatisfying incidents. Consistent with the uniqueness bias, participants characterized their own relationships by a greater number of constructive responses and a smaller number of destructive responses relative to characterizations of others' relationships. Moreover, external raters judged own constructive responses to be more constructive than others' constructive responses. Consistent with the similarity bias, external raters judged items describing others' responses to be less frequently occurring and more extreme than their own responses. Also, this research revealed support for the claim that the similarity bias is more pronounced for destructive responses than for constructive responses. A recall task corroborated these findings, revealing very good recall for destructive responses enacted by others and poor recall for destructive responses enacted by oneself.     

Sex differences in physical,verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research

In the present article, recent research on sex differences in aggressive styles is reviewed. The concept of indirect aggression is particularly presented and discussed. It is argued that it is incorrect, or rather, nonsensical, to claim that males are more aggressive than females. A theory regarding the development of styles of aggressive behavior is presented.     

Witnessing interparental psychological aggression in childhood: implications for daily conflict in adult intimate relationships

We examined the consequences of witnessing interparental psychological aggression in childhood for daily conflict processes in adult intimate relationships. Both partners in 73 heterosexual couples provided daily diary reports of relationship conflict over a 28-day period. Partners' reports of witnessing mother-to-father and father-to-mother psychological aggression were used to predict exposure to daily relationship conflicts and reactivity to those conflicts (as reflected in end-of-day anger). Results showed no evidence of exposure effects: Witnessing interparental psychological aggression was unrelated to the number of conflict days reported by either partner. Reactivity effects emerged for males only, with father's aggression predicting increased reactivity and mother's aggression predicting the opposite. However, we found evidence of direct or unmediated effects of interparental conflict on daily anger for both males and females. Mirroring the reactivity pattern, the same-sex parent's psychological aggression predicted greater daily anger, whereas the opposite-sex parent's aggression predicted less daily anger. These effects emerged independently of Big Five measures of personality; moreover, Big Five measures did not predict outcomes independently of interparental aggression.     

Parental psychological control dimensions: Connections with Russian preschoolers’ physical and relational aggression

Parental psychological control generally consists of overinvolved/protective and critical/rejecting elements, both being linked to children's psychosocial maladjustment. The critical/rejecting element is multidimensional in nature, and few studies have explored this conceptual fullness. It is possible that some dimensions, if they can be statistically differentiated, are uniquely tied to various child behaviors. This may help resolve some of the inconsistency apparent across studies, such as studies of relational aggression. Accordingly, we examined the association between parental psychological control and childhood physical and relational aggression using a dimensional approach. Participants were 204 Russian preschoolers and their parents. The results revealed that dimensions of psychosocial control (i.e., shaming/disappointment, constraining verbal expressions, invalidating feelings, love withdrawal, and guilt induction) could be statistically differentiated, even though most dimensions tended to be significantly correlated. Furthermore, all dimensions, except for invalidating feelings, were significantly associated with childhood aggression, but predominantly in same-gender parent–child dyads.     

Affective processes as mediators of links between close relationships and physical health

Close relationships are known to predict physical health outcomes. The time has come for a shift toward achieving a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. One promising group of psychological mechanisms is affective processes, such as discrete emotions, emotion regulation, and affect reactivity. In this paper, we discuss the evidence linking relationship functioning with both the positive and negative valences of each affective process, considering the contributions of different types of close relationships across the lifespan, and the evidence for each affective process impacting physical health. We note evidence suggesting that affective processes may also have a causal impact on relationship function. When available, we review literature testing full mediational pathways, from relationship functioning to affective processes to physical health, as the ideal methodology for testing these links. Finally, we identify core themes and propose key future directions for this research.     

The development of social aggression and physical aggression: A narrative analysis of interpersonal conflicts

Using conflict narratives reported by children and adolescents, this study investigated the development and social functions of social aggression in comparison to physical aggression. A total of 510 participants in two cohorts of a longitudinal study were involved (116 girls and 104 boys from Grade 4 and155 girls and 135 boys from Grade 7). Patterns of social aggression and physical aggression were identified based on interview reports in the first year of the study. Results showed that a triadic structure of social relationship was often reported in conflicts where social aggression was employed, whereas a dyadic structure was reported in conflicts involving physical aggression. Girls tended to use social aggression against girls, whereas boys tended to use physical aggression against boys. Children and adolescents who were central in peer social networks were more likely to employ social aggression than those who were peripheral in the networks. Social aggression was not reliably linked to concurrent or future problematic adjustment. Physical aggression, however, was not related to network centrality but was linked to concurrent and future maladjustment (e.g., low academic competence and school dropout). Aggr. Behav. 28:341–355, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Attachment styles and close relationships: A four-year prospective study

A longitudinal study of 177 adults examined the stability of adult attachment styles and of romantic relationships over a 4-year period. Findings included the following: (a) attachment styles were highly stable over time; (b) Time 1 attachment style was a significant predictor of Time 2 relationship status, but (c) this effect was mediated by concurrent attachment style at Time 2; (d) secure respondents were less likely than insecure respondents to report one or more breakups during the 4-year interval, but (e) paradoxically, ambivalent respondents were just as likely as secure respondents to be in a relationship with the same partner they had identified 4 years earlier; and (f) attachment stability was moderated to some extent by the experience of breakup or initiation of new relationships during the interim. Respondents' ability to recall their previous attachment style was also examined. Methodological and theoretical implications are discussed, particularly with respect to the conceptualization of attachment styles as traits versus reflections of current relationship status.     

亲密关系中的自我扩张

自我扩张理论认为, 人们通过将他人的资源、观点和认同纳入自我来实现自我扩张, 增强完成目标的效能感。该理论作为动机领域的新热点, 研究多以亲密关系为背景。现有研究主要采用实验法和问卷法, 以自我扩张动机和将他人纳入自我为基点展开, 内容涉及择偶、关系质量、不忠、关系破裂和维持等方面。未来研究需进一步考察不同亲密关系类型、关系与非关系中自我扩张的运作机制, 以及亲密关系双方自我扩张的相互作用。     

Self-monitoring and close relationships

Three types of close relationships have received attention from theorists and researchers interested in self-monitoring: friendships, romantic relationships, and marriage. Our review of this literature was organized around three phases of relationships: initiation, maintenance, and dissolution. Across the three types of relationships, consistent differences between high self-monitors and low self-monitors emerged concerning the structure of their social relationships (segmented vs. integrated), the basis for choosing friends and romantic partners (activity-based vs. person-based), and the orientation taken to romantic and marital partners (uncommitted vs. committed). Across all three types of relationships, however, little is known about the processes and consequences involved in the dissolution of close relationships for high self-monitors and low self-monitors. Relatively little is also known about the processes used by high self-monitors and low self-monitors to maintain their friendships and marriages. In addition to addressing these deficiencies in the literature, theorists and researchers interested in self-monitoring and close relationships need to develop sophisticated, causal models that can account for (a) interaction exchanges in the relationships, (b) dyadic as well as individual levels of analysis, and (c) temporal and situational changes in the course of close relationships.     

The dark side of forgiveness: the tendency to forgive predicts continued psychological and physical aggression in marriage

Despite a burgeoning literature that documents numerous positive implications of forgiveness, scholars know very little about the potential negative implications of forgiveness. In particular, the tendency to express forgiveness may lead offenders to feel free to offend again by removing unwanted consequences for their behavior (e.g., anger, criticism, rejection, loneliness) that would otherwise discourage reoffending. Consistent with this possibility, the current longitudinal study of newlywed couples revealed a positive association between spouses' reports of their tendencies to express forgiveness to their partners and those partners' reports of psychological and physical aggression. Specifically, although spouses who reported being relatively more forgiving experienced psychological and physical aggression that remained stable over the first 4 years of marriage, spouses who reported being relatively less forgiving experienced declines in both forms of aggression over time. These findings join just a few others in demonstrating that forgiveness is not a panacea.     

Self-awareness and physical aggression

A theory of self-awareness was applied to aggression. In Experiment I, men were given an opportunity to aggress against women in the presence of a mirror, an audience, or neither. The mirror significantly inhibited aggression, but the audience did not. In Experiment II, an audience inhibited aggression, but only when there was frequent eye contact between the aggressor and the audience. These results were consistent with the predictions derived from the theory.     

Psychotic dream-related aggression: A critical review and proposal

The relationship among parasomnias, sleep-related violence (SRV), and psychosis has neither been reported nor studied. The authors introduce the phenomenon of psychotic dream-related aggression (PDRA) and, through a review of the research on manifest dreams, the continuity of thinking across the sleep–wake cycle, and SRV, argue for its inclusion alongside the parasomnias of DSM-IV. Five cases are presented that illustrate this phenomenon, usually a male diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia whose violent act toward another was closely associated with the manifest content of his nocturnal dreams and his inability to test reality. Differential diagnostic criteria are proposed to separate PDRA from other parasomnias that may be related to violence. Treatment and forensic implications are discussed.