Armstrong And The Problem Of Converse Relations

In A World of States of Affairs(Cambridge University Press, 1997) David Armstrong offers acomprehensive metaphysics based on the thesis that the world consistsof states of affairs. Among the entities postulated by Armstrong's theory are relations, including non-symmetrical relations, and whileArmstrong does not agree with Russell that all relations have adirection or definite order among their places, he does explicitlyacknowledge that the slots of a non-symmetrical relation have adefinite order or direction. I first show that non-symmetricalrelations pose a problem for Armstrong's theory by raising TheProblem of Converse Relations. I then argue that the bestresolution of this problem in the context of Armstrong's theoryinvolves adopting an analysis of the order or direction of a relationthat differs from the analysis that Russell assumes. I conclude bydiscussing a further problem facing Armstrong's ontology: TheProblem of Converse Relational Properties.     

人格特质与认知能力的关系及其年龄差异

人格是影响认知能力的重要因素, 不同的人格特质与认知能力的关系不同, 人格与认知能力的关系在不同年龄阶段也有所不同。当前的研究主要探讨了人格特质与认知能力之间的关系以及不同人格特质对不同认知能力的影响, 并在不同的年龄阶段进行比较。有关不同人格特质对认知能力的影响结果逐渐清晰, 但现有的研究结果存在很多争议。未来可以在人格的稳定性及其对认知能力的影响、人格对认知能力影响的作用机制及其相关影响因素、跨文化研究和研究范式等方面继续深化, 以获取对该研究问题更科学的研究结论。     

Preferential Semantics using Non-smooth Preference Relations

This paper studies the properties of eight semantic consequence relations defined from a Tarski-logic L and a preference relation ? . They are equivalent to Shoham’s so-called preferential entailment for smooth model structures, but avoid certain problems of the latter in non-smooth configurations. Each of the logics can be characterized in terms of what we call multi-selection semantics. After discussing this type of semantics, we focus on some concrete proposals from the literature, checking a number of meta-theoretic properties and elaborating on their intuitive motivation. As it turns out, many of their meta-properties only hold in case ? is transitive. To tackle this problem, we propose slight modifications of each of the systems, showing the resulting logics to behave better at the intuitive level and in metatheoretic terms, for arbitrary ? .     

Confirmation of Scientific Hypotheses as Relations

Summary  In spite of several attempts to explicate the relationship between a scientific hypothesis and evidence, the issue still cries for a satisfactory solution. Logical approaches to confirmation, such as the hypothetico-deductive method and the positive instance account of confirmation, are problematic because of their neglect of the semantic dimension of hypothesis confirmation. Probabilistic accounts of confirmation are no better than logical approaches in this regard. An outstanding probabilistic account of confirmation, the Bayesian approach, for instance, is found to be defective in that it treats evidence as a formal entity and this creates the problem of relevance of evidence to the hypothesis at issue, in addition to the difficulties arising from the subjective interpretation of probabilities. This essay purports to satisfy the need for a successful account of hypothesis confirmation by offering an original formulation based on the notion of instantiation of the relation urged by an hypothesis.     

A Semantics for Means-end Relations

There has been considerable work on practical reasoning in artificial intelligence and also in philosophy. Typically, such reasoning includes premises regarding means–end relations. A clear semantics for such relations is needed in order to evaluate proposed syllogisms. In this paper, we provide a formal semantics for means–end relations, in particular for necessary and sufficient means–end relations. Our semantics includes a non-monotonic conditional operator, so that related practical reasoning is naturally defeasible. This work is primarily an exercise in conceptual analysis, aimed at clarifying and eventually evaluating existing theories of practical reasoning (pending a similar analysis regarding desires, intentions and other relevant concepts). “They were in conversation without speaking. They didn’t need to speak. They just changed reality so that they had spoken.” Terry Pratchett, Reaper Man     

Temporal Relations vs. Logical Reduction: A Phenomenal Theory of Causality

Kant, in various parts of his treatment of causality, refers to determinism or the principle of sufficient reason as an inescapable principle. In fact, in the Second Analogy we find the elements to reconstruct a purely phenomenal determinism as a logical and tautological truth. I endeavour in this article to gather these elements into an organic theory of phenomenal causality and then show, in the third section, with a specific argument which I call the “paradox of phenomenal observation”, that this phenomenal determinism is the only rational approach to causality because any logico-reductivistic approach, such as the Humean one, would destroy the temporal order and so the very possibility to talk of a causal relation. I also believe that, all things said, Kant did not achieve a much greater comprehension of the problem than Hume did, in his theory of causality, for he did not free a phenomenal approach from the impasse of reductivism as his reflections on “simultaneous causation” and “vanishing quantities” indeed show, and this I will argue in Sect. 4 of this article.

Kant on International Relations

This paper explores some of the problems which arise from Immanuel Kant’s commitment to both human rights and the rights of states. Michael Doyle believed it was contradictory for Kant to defend both human rights and non-intervention by states in the affairs of other states, but I argue that for Kant there was no such contradiction, and I explore Kant’s claim that the state is “a moral personality.” I also discuss Kant’s belief that “Nature guarantees” that perpetual peace will obtain, and I consider Kant as a teleologist.     

国际关系的伦理审视

探讨国际关系伦理,明确战争的正义性和非正义性,以避免战争,尽量减少战争带来的伤亡,维护世界和平;各国要相互尊重,平等地开展国际合作,共同发展,实现世界的共同繁荣;南北国家要加强交流与合作,寻求最佳的结合点,共同致力于全球的可持续发展;最后,各国必须以伦理道德为依托来解决国际人权问题,必须承认人权的普遍性和多样性,确立一个同纷繁复杂的文化多样性相协调的普遍的最低道德标准。     

流动儿童的问题行为与人格、家庭功能的关系

以北京市806名流动儿童和319名城市儿童为被试,采用问题行为问卷、小五人格问卷和家庭功能问卷,考察流动儿童问题行为的特点及其与城市儿童的差异,并探讨人格和家庭功能对流动儿童问题行为的影响。结果发现:(1)流动儿童内、外化问题行为的自我报告率分别达到了31.0%2、0.1%,与城市儿童相比,流动儿童的内化问题行为较为突出。(2)人格的情绪性、开放性显著正向预测流动儿童的内化问题题行为,外向性、家庭功能的亲密度显著负向预测其内化问题行为,情绪性、开放性显著正向预测流动儿童的外化问题行为,宜人性、谨慎性、亲密度显著负向预测外化问题行为。(3)人格在家庭功能的亲密度与内化问题行为之间起部分中介作用,在亲密度与外化问题行为之间起完全中介作用。     

Relations amongm sets of measures

The problem of determining linear functions for two sets of variables so as to maximize the correlation between the two functions has been solved by Hotelling. This article presents a more efficient computational solution for the case of two sets of variables and a generalized solution for any number of sets. Applications are discussed and a numerical example is included to demonstrate the solution for more than two sets.     

Relations as transformations: Implications for analogical reasoning

We present two experiments assessing whether the size of a transformation instantiating a relation between two states of the world (e.g., shrinks) is a performance factor affecting analogical reasoning. The first experiment finds evidence of transformation size as a significant factor in adolescent analogical problem solving while the second experiment finds a similar effect on adult analogical reasoning using a markedly different analogical completion paradigm. The results are interpreted as providing evidence for the more general framework that cognitive representations of relations are best understood as mental transformations.     

Structural Universals And Formal Relations

I will consider Armstrong's problems in trying to account for structural universals,i.e., a kind of complex universal whose instantiation by particulars involves differentparts of those particulars instantiating several basic properties and relations, such asthe property of being a molecule of methane. I present and criticise Armstrong's mostrecent attempt to explain structural properties by means of the identification of universals with types of states of affairs and I state my own solution to the problem by appealing to formal relations holding between particulars.     

Freedom Beyond Practical Reason: Duns Scotus on Will-Dependent Relations

Most acts of the will have a complex structure, i.e. wanting A in relation to B (e.g. as a means for an end or as a good for another person or for oneself). Duns Scotus makes the innovative claim that the will itself is responsible for the order of this complex structure. It does this by causing its own will-dependent relations, which he construes as a kind of mind-dependent relations (relationes rationis). By means of these relations, the will can arrange the terms of its will-acts independently of any arrangement proposed by the intellect. This not only allows the structure of one's will-act to diverge from the structure proposed by the intellect's final practical judgement; the structure of the will-act need not even have been considered by the intellect at all. One could, therefore, even will an inconceivable state of affairs. I argue that this theory, which scholars have virtually ignored, is fundamental to Scotus's account of divine, angelic, and human freedom, and that it follows necessarily from his voluntarist understanding of freedom. For Scotus, if the will could not structure its acts independently of the intellect, it would not be free.¹¹Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the Hoger Instituut voor Wijsbegeerte (Leuven), the Cornell Summer Colloquium in Medieval Philosophy, and at UCLA. I am grateful for the discussion with those present on these occasions. Special thanks are due to Joshua Benson, Francis Feingold, Gloria Frost, Michael Gorman, Bonnie Kent, Calvin Normore, and Nick Kahm for helpful comments.     

Improving Intergroup Relations: The Effects of Empathy on Racial Attitudes1

Prior research indicates that information‐based intergroup relations programs are only moderately successful (MGregor, 1993; Stephan & Stephan, 1984). In order to explore a means of increasing the effectiveness of techniques used to change attitudes toward out groups, the current study examined the effects of giving Anglo American students information about everyday incidents of discrimination against African Americans either with or without empathy‐inducing instructions. The results indicate that reading about discrimination against African Americans or inducing empathy reduces in‐group‐out‐group bias in attitudes toward African Americans vs. Anglo Americans. The implications of these findings for models of the effects of empathy on intergroup relations are discussed.     

Power Relations and Group Aggregation in the Multiplicative AHP and SMART

The relative power of the members in a group of decision makers can be incorporated in the multiplicative AHP via power coefficients in the logarithmic least squares whereby we analyse the pairwise comparison matrices. When each decision maker judges every pair of alternatives under each of the criteria, aggregation over the criteria and over the decision makers proceeds via a sequence of geometric-mean calculations which can be carried out in any order, at least with predetermined criterion weights and power coefficients. Hence, since we preserve the rank order of the alternatives, we avoid a deficiency of the original AHP. We also consider SMART, an additive method which is logarithmically related to the multiplicative AHP so that power relations can easily be incorporated in it. Finally, in order to illustrate the proposed model, we analyse a generalized version of the well-known example of Belton and Gear as well as the power relations between member countries of the European Community. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Multi-Crit. Decis. Anal. 6 : 155–165 (1997) No. of Figures: 0. No. of Tables: 6. No. of References: 23.     

新时代青少年价值观的构成特征与适应功能研究

在中国改革开放和社会变迁的新时代背景下,分析青少年价值观构成特征,形成有效的测量工具,并对初、高中共780名学生的价值观结构及价值观的学校和社会适应功能进行调查。结果发现：中国青少年价值观由社会平等、集体取向 、遵纪守则、亲情、友情、上进竞争、时尚、享受快乐 8个维度构成,问卷具有良好的信、效度;男生相对女生更认同友情,初中生相比高中生更认同社会公平和亲情,高中生更认同享受快乐;青少年价值观各维度对学校和社会适应的某些指标具有预测作用：对上进竞争的认同可以正向预测学业成绩和学校能力;对时尚的认同负向预测学业成绩和亲社会行为,正向预测学习问题;对亲情的认同正向预测社会能力和亲社会行为;对友情的认同正向预测同伴偏好。总体而言,新时代青少年价值观构成特征受到自身发展阶段、社会经济文化等因素的影响,研究结果有助于理解现阶段青少年健康心理发展与价值观教育之间的关系,对未来的青少年价值观教育提供了心理学的实证依据。     

时间顺序关系对语言理解的影响

通过2个实验探讨在语言理解中时间顺序相关性(顺时序、反时序、不相关)和时间间隔(200ms、500ms、1000ms)在日常事件认识中的作用。实验采用关系——认知范式(relarion-recognition paradigm)。结果表明：被试在有明显时间信息影响下,优先对将来取向(顺时序)的事件进行加工处理。对时间上不相关的事件比对顺时序和反时序的事件加工得快而准。但在无明显时间信息影响时,首先受到本身词义的影响,继而受到隐含的时间信息的影响。     

母亲负性情绪与儿童外化问题行为的关系：家庭嘈杂度的调节作用

摘 要 对251名学前儿童及母亲进行一年的追踪来考察母亲负性情绪与学前儿童外化问题之间的关系及这一关系是否受到家庭嘈杂度的影响。结果: (1) T1儿童外化问题能正向预测T2母亲负性情绪,而T1母亲负性情绪对T2儿童外化问题的预测不显著;(2)与低嘈杂家庭相比,高嘈杂家庭中儿童外化问题对母亲负性情绪的预测作用更强,且儿童外化问题也更为稳定。结论：母亲负性情绪与儿童外化问题的关系主要表现为儿童效应,且这一效应受到家庭环境的调节。     

Transfer to Derived Sample-comparison Relations by Pigeons Following Many-to-one versus One-to-many Matching with Identical Training Relations

Separate groups of pigeons learned the same three sets of sample-comparison relations across two phases of conditional discrimination training. For one group, that training consisted of multiple-sample, single-comparison (A-X, B-X) matching-to-sample followed by a second matching task in which two of the original samples were matched to new comparisons (A-Y). For the other group, initial training consisted of single-sample, multiple-comparison (A-X, A-Y) matching-to-sample followed by a second task in which two of the original comparisons were matched to new samples (B-X). Both groups were then tested on the same set of derived sample-comparison relations (B-Y). Transfer to these derived relations was evident following the multiple-sample, single-comparison training sequence but not following the single-sample, multiple-comparison sequence. Apparently, the emergence of new conditional relations in pigeons depends upon the order in which the component conditional discriminations are learned—a result predictable from Hull's (1939) analysis of secondary stimulus generalization.