Preference Structure Modelling for Multi-objective Decision Making: A Goal–Programming Approach

We propose a new approach for modelling preference structures in multi-objective decision-making (MODM) problems. The basic idea of the approach is to first develop PROMETHEE-influenced objective functions and then to use these to reformulate the problem as a distance-based goal–programming (GP) model. Three basic functional forms are proposed and explicit expressions are developed for them. Among other things, the expressions allow for the straightforward development of an interactive framework while keeping the information requirements from the decision maker (DM) at a minimum. An ‘automatic’ piecewise linear approximation scheme is proposed for solving the GP model. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Multi-Crit. Decis. Anal. 6 : 150–154 (1997) No. of Figures: 0. No. of Tables: 0. No. of References: 12.     

Phonology competes with syntax: experimental evidence for the interaction of word order and accent placement in the realization of Information Structure

In this paper, we investigate the interaction of phonological and syntactic constraints on the realization of Information Structure in Greek, a free word order language. We use magnitude estimation as our experimental paradigm, which allows us to quantify the influence of a given linguistic constraint on the acceptability of a sentence. We present results from two experiments. In the first experiment, we focus on the interaction of word order and context. In the second experiment, we investigate the additional effect of accent placement and clitic doubling. The results show that word order, in contrast to standard assumptions in the theoretical literature, plays only a secondary role in marking the Information Structure of a sentence. Order preferences are relatively weak and can be overridden by constraints on accent placement and clitic doubling. Our experiments also demonstrate that a null context shows the same preference pattern as an all focus context, indicating that 'default' word order and accent placement (in the absence of context) can be explained in terms of Information Structure. In the theoretical part of this paper, we formalize the interaction of syntactic and phonological constraints on Information Structure. We argue that this interaction is best captured using a notion of grammatical competition, such as the one developed by Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolensky, 1993, Optimality theory: constraint interaction in generative grammar (Technical Report No. 2). Center for Cognitive Science, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ; Science 275 (1997) 1604). In particular, we exploit the optimality theoretic concept of constraint ranking to account for the fact that some constraint violations are more serious than others. We extend standard Optimality Theory to obtain a grammar model that predicts not only the optimal (i.e. grammatical) realization of a given input, but also makes predictions about the relative grammaticality of suboptimal structures. This allows us to derive a constraint hierarchy that accounts for the interaction of phonological and syntactic constraints on Information Structure and models the acceptability patterns found in the experimental data.     

Locating a Waste Treatment Facility by Multicriteria Analysis

We describe an application of multicriteria decision aid to the location of a waste treatment facility in eastern Finland. In Finland, the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure requires that when the amount of waste to be dealt with in a facility exceeds 20,000 tons per year, the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) must be performed. In addition, the opinions of citizens and different interest groups need to be heard. Generally, EIA requires many different factors to be dealt with. Therefore the use of some multicriteria decision aid may be helpful to preserve the information obtained through the EIA in the decision-making process. The alternative locations for the facility were considered based on 14 criteria by 28 decision makers. The present paper makes use of the PROMETHEE decision aid, which was found to fit well with certain constraints in this type of problem with multiple criteria and multiple decision makers. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Multi-Crit. Decis. Anal. 6 : 175–184 (1997) No. of Figures: 2. No. of Tables: 3. No. of References: 18.     

Constraint Respecters, Constraint Challengers, and Crisis Decision Making in Democracies: A Case Study Analysis of Kennedy versus Reagan

Models linking domestic political constraints (audience costs, pressures for the diversionary use of force, democratic norms and institutions) to foreign policy behavior generally assume that leaders simply recognize and submit to constraints in their domestic environments—a strong structural argument. In contrast, research on political leadership and decision making suggests that leaders vary systematically in their orientations toward constraints: "constraint respecters" tend to internalize potential constraints, while "constraint challengers" are more likely to view them as obstacles to be overcome. This article develops an integrative theoretical framework that explicitly incorporates these insights and applies them to the domain of crisis decision making. After identifying leaders' expected orientations toward constraints via at-a-distance methods, the plausibility of hypotheses derived from this framework is examined through case studies that explore the decision-making processes employed by President Kennedy (a "constraint respecter") and President Reagan (a "constraint challenger") during international crises. The results suggest that there is important variation in how leaders perceive and respond to domestic constraints, and that leadership style is one—though not the only—important source of this variation.     

The physics of optimal decision making: a formal analysis of models of performance in two-alternative forced-choice tasks

In this article, the authors consider optimal decision making in two-alternative forced-choice (TAFC) tasks. They begin by analyzing 6 models of TAFC decision making and show that all but one can be reduced to the drift diffusion model, implementing the statistically optimal algorithm (most accurate for a given speed or fastest for a given accuracy). They prove further that there is always an optimal trade-off between speed and accuracy that maximizes various reward functions, including reward rate (percentage of correct responses per unit time), as well as several other objective functions, including ones weighted for accuracy. They use these findings to address empirical data and make novel predictions about performance under optimality.     

A constraint-satisfaction approach to studying the management of multiple objectives in design problem-solving

How professional and novice designers manage multiple objectives through constraint satisfaction was studied. An objective is defined as a network of constraints; a constraint is characterized as related to a source (internal or external) and an addressee (e.g., client or user). It has been shown that designers favour objectives related to external constraint (e.g., data from the task) and to the client. Generally, client and external constraints are identical. To study the management of multiple objectives, fifteen web site designers were instructed to design a site according to user's objectives or client's objectives. Our results indicate that the validity status allocated to constraints is more determined by the status of the addressee than by the status of the source, whatever the objective condition that must be satisfied. Possible methodological generalizations are discussed.     

Power Relations and Group Aggregation in the Multiplicative AHP and SMART

The relative power of the members in a group of decision makers can be incorporated in the multiplicative AHP via power coefficients in the logarithmic least squares whereby we analyse the pairwise comparison matrices. When each decision maker judges every pair of alternatives under each of the criteria, aggregation over the criteria and over the decision makers proceeds via a sequence of geometric-mean calculations which can be carried out in any order, at least with predetermined criterion weights and power coefficients. Hence, since we preserve the rank order of the alternatives, we avoid a deficiency of the original AHP. We also consider SMART, an additive method which is logarithmically related to the multiplicative AHP so that power relations can easily be incorporated in it. Finally, in order to illustrate the proposed model, we analyse a generalized version of the well-known example of Belton and Gear as well as the power relations between member countries of the European Community. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Multi-Crit. Decis. Anal. 6 : 155–165 (1997) No. of Figures: 0. No. of Tables: 6. No. of References: 23.     

A multiple-objective linear programming model for the citrus rootstock selection problem in Florida

Citrus is one of Florida's key agricultural crops, with annual production accounting for over 70% of all U.S. production. During the 1970s and 1980s, citrus blight, tristeza and freezes caused citrus rootstock selection to become a critical issue in Florida, and it remains so today. This paper describes a multiple-objective linear programming model that we have developed for solving the citrus roostock selection problem in Florida. The model has four objective functions. These functions, together with the constraints of the model, capture the main factors that Florida citrus growers use in choosing portfolios of rootstocks for planting in their groves. We tested the usefulness of this model by solving an experimental application for the Fort Pierce area with the interactive STEM algorithm. From our research we conclude that, when properly solved with the aid of STEM, the multiple-objective linear programming model has the potential to serve Florida citrus growers as a useful decision aid in formulating rootstock selection plans. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Problem-Solving Restructuration: Elimination of Implicit Constraints

A general model of problem-solving processes based on misconception elimination is presented to simulate both impasses and solving processes. The model operates on goal-related rules and a set of constraint rules in the form of “if (state or goal), do not (Action)” for the explicit constraints in the instructions and the implicit constraints that come from misconceptions of legal moves. When impasses occur, a constraint elimination mechanism is applied. Because successive eliminations of implicit constraints enlarge the problem space and have an effect on planning, the model integrates “plan-based” and “constraint-based” approaches to problem-solving behavior. Simulating individual protocols of Tower of Hanoi situations shows that the model, which has a proper set of constraints, predicts a single move with no alternative on about 61% of the movements and that protocols are quite successfully simulated movement by movement. Finally, it is shown that many features of previous models are embedded in the constraint elimination model.     

An interactive fuzzy satisficing method for multiobjective stochastic linear programming problems using chance constrained conditions

Two major approaches to deal with randomness or ambiguity involved in mathematical programming problems have been developed. They are stochastic programming approaches and fuzzy programming approaches. In this paper, we focus on multiobjective linear programming problems with random variable coefficients in objective functions and/or constraints. Using chance constrained programming techniques, the stochastic programming problems are transformed into deterministic ones. As a fusion of stochastic approaches and fuzzy ones, after determining the fuzzy goals of the decision maker, interactive fuzzy satisficing methods to derive a satisficing solution for the decision maker by updating the reference membership levels is presented. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Statistical Evaluation of Algebraic Constraints for Social Networks

A multirelational social network on a set of individuals may be represented as a collection of binary relations. Compound relations constructed from this collection represent various labeled paths linking individuals in the network. Since many models of interest for social networks can be formulated in terms of orderings among these labeled paths, we consider the problem of evaluating an hypothesized set of orderings, termed algebraic constraints. Each constraint takes the form of an hypothesized inclusion relation for a pair of labeled paths. In this paper, we establish conditions under which sets of such constraints may be regarded as partial algebras. We describe the structure of constraint sets and show that each corresponds to a subset of consistent relation bundles between pairs of individuals. We thereby construct measures of fit for a given constraint set. Then, we show how, in combination with the assumption of various conditional uniform multigraph distributions, these measures lead to a flexible approach to the evaluation of fit of an hypothesized constraint set. Several applications are presented and some possible extensions of the approach are briefly discussed. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Structural constraints on bimanual movements

Summary A theoretical framework is outlined, according to which structural constraints on bimanual movements can at least in part be understood as coupling between parameters of generalized motor programs. This framework provides a conceptual link between reaction-time data from experiments with bimanual responses, successive unimanual responses, and choice between left-hand and right-hand responses on the one hand and performance data obtained with concurrently performed continuous movements or sequences of discrete responses on the other. On the basis of data obtained with different methods for the study of intermanual interactions, a distinction is drawn between steady-state and transient constraints, and the hypothesis that the tendency to coactivate homologous muscles originates from a transient coupling of program parameters is applied to a variety of observations on performance in different tasks. Finally, the notion of transient constraints is applied to other types of intermanual interdependencies and to interpersonal coordination; the possible emergence of transient constraints from steady-state constraints through progressive development of inhibitory pathways in childhood is discussed, as is the potential biological significance of transient constraints.Part of the work reported in this paper was done while I enjoyed the hospitality on the NIAS, Wassenaar (NL)     

多项式加工树模型次序约束的量化分析及其应用

多项式加工树（MPT）模型是一种认知测量模型,能够对潜在认知过程进行测量和检验。已有研究探讨了二链MPT模型次序约束的重新参数化问题,本研究探讨了MPT模型次序约束的量化分析方法并从二链推广到多链,同时归纳出MPT模型参数向量内和参数向量间两参数次序约束量化分析的结论。数据分析结果表明该方法不仅在MPT模型框架下验证了潜在参数次序关系,而且给出了约束的量化指标,为潜在认知测量提供更有意义的解释。     

Does Time Constraint on Users Negate the Efficacy of Decision Support Systems?

Time constraint can impair decision performance: time-constrained decision makers process information faster, process less information, and use less rigorous decision strategies. On the other hand, properly designed decision support systems (DSSs) can induce decision makers to process more information and use more rigorous decision strategies, which can result in enhanced performance. In this study, we investigate, drawing on bounded rationality and cost-benefit theories of DSS use, whether these salutary effects of DSSs still hold in time-constrained environments. Our experimental results replicate past research regarding the effects of time constraint and DSSs taken separately and also show that the positive effects of DSSs are maintained when decision makers are under time constraint. That is, consistent with hypotheses, time-constrained participants processed information in a more compensatorylike manner when aided by DSSs than when not. Some of the results suggest that the negative effects of time constraint can be mitigated or even eliminated by the use of DSSs, but some participants did not take full advantage of the DSS to combat time constraint.     

Efficient Creativity: Constraint‐Guided Conceptual Combination

This paper describes a theory that explains both the creativity and the efficiency of people's conceptual combination. In the constraint theory, conceptual combination is controlled by three constraints of diagnosticity, plausibility, and informativeness. The constraints derive from the pragmatics of communication as applied to compound phrases. The creativity of combination arises because the constraints can be satisfied in many different ways. The constraint theory yields an algorithmic model of the efficiency of combination. The C³ model admits the full creativity of combination and yet efficiently settles on the best interpretation for a given phrase. The constraint theory explains many empirical regularities in conceptual combination, and makes various empirically verified predictions. In computer simulations of compound phrase interpretation, the C³ model has produced results in general agreement with people's responses to the same phrases.     

计算机化分类测验终止规则的类别、特点及应用

计算机化分类测验(Computerized Classification Testing, CCT)能够高效地对被试进行分类, 已广泛应用于合格性测验及临床心理学中。作为CCT的重要组成部分, 终止规则决定测验何时停止以及将被试最终划分到何种类别, 因此直接影响测验效率及分类准确率。已有的三大类终止规则(似然比规则、贝叶斯决策理论规则及置信区间规则)的核心思想分别为构造假设检验、设计损失函数和比较置信区间相对位置。同时, 在不同测验情境下, CCT的终止规则发展出不同的具体形式。未来研究可以继续开发贝叶斯规则、考虑多维多类别情境以及结合作答时间和机器学习算法。针对测验实际需求, 三类终止规则在合格性测验上均有应用潜力, 而临床问卷则倾向应用贝叶斯规则。     

Response to the Comments by Larichev,Korhonen and Vargas on ‘Power Relations and Group Aggregation in the Multiplicative AHP and SMART’

We are pleased to continue the open discussion in this journal and we hope that it will contribute to the clarification of the main issues. Aggregation by geometric means has been accepted as a technically sound procedure. The critical comments now seem to concentrate on the establishment of the Multiplicative AHP, the publication of a method for weighted voting before empirical verification, and the significance of negotiations in decision making. Several numerical examples illustrate the arithmetic-mean and geometric-mean calculations, and the legitimacy of rank reversal is revisited. We discuss the issues in the same order here. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Multi-Crit. Decis. Anal. 6 : 171–174 (1997) No. of Figures: 0. No. of Tables: 5. No. of References: 9.     

The effect of time constraints and personality facets on general cognitive ability (GCA) assessment

General cognitive ability (GCA) is a recognized construct for predicting job performance and capacity to learn. However, it has recently been argued that the time constraints under which GCA is assessed might provoke test anxiety, which negatively biases GCA scores. This can then lead to erroneous rejection of qualified candidates in personnel hiring contexts. This paper aimed to investigate: (1) to what extent candidates’ GCA scores increase when tested without time constraints and the ability of this GCA score to predict job performance; and (2) the personality characteristics that hinder GCA test performance under time constraints. Results from two field studies conducted in an actual personnel selection context partially confirmed the hypotheses. They revealed that, aside from the improvement of all candidates’ GCA scores when time constraint was removed, only GCA assessed without time constraints predicts job performance. Furthermore, while all candidates’ scores were influenced by the time constraint condition, individuals who are anxious, low-impulse, low value-questioning and deliberating are more penalized by the time constraint condition of such testing and, thus, are more likely to be erroneously eliminated in a selection process.     

Grammatical number elicits SNARC and MARC effects as a function of task demands

Despite the robustness of the spatial–numerical association of response codes (SNARC) and linguistic markedness of response codes (MARC) effect, the mechanisms that underlie these effects are still under debate. In this paper, we investigate the extraction of quantity information from German number words and nouns inflected for singular and plural using two alternative forced choice paradigms. These paradigms are applied to different tasks to investigate how access to quantity representation is modulated by task demands. In Experiment 1, we replicated previous SNARC findings for number words—that is, a relative left-hand advantage for words denoting small numbers and a right-hand advantage for words denoting large numbers in semantic tasks (parity decision and quantity comparison). No SNARC effect was obtained for surface or lexical processing tasks (font categorization and lexical decision). In Experiment 2, we found that German words inflected for singular had a relative left-hand advantage, and German words inflected for plural a relative right-hand advantage, showing a SNARC-like effect for grammatical number. The effect interfered, however, with a MARC-like effect based on the markedness asymmetry of singulars and plurals. These two effects appear to be dissociated by response latency rather than task demands, with MARC being more pronounced in early responses and SNARC being more pronounced in late responses. The present findings shed light on the relationship of conceptual number and grammatical number and constrain current accounts of the SNARC and MARC effects.