Liquid rescheduling for the treatment of rumination

A pre‐intervention assessment was conducted to determine the conditions under which rumination by a 19‐year‐old man with autism was most and least likely to occur. The results of the assessment suggested that rumination was least likely when the participant did not consume liquids with meals and when he consumed peanut butter during meals. Based upon the results of the assessment, an intervention consisting of rescheduling access to liquids (i.e., no liquids during meals) was evaluated across both breakfast and lunch at the participant's school placement. Results suggest that the intervention was effective in reducing rumination. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A comparison of procedures for programming noncontingent reinforcement schedules

We compared two methods for programming and thinning noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) schedules during the treatment of self-injurious behavior (SIB). The participants were 3 individuals who had been diagnosed with mental retardation. Results of functional analyses indicated that all participants' SIB was maintained by positive reinforcement (i.e., access to attention or food). Following baseline, the effects of two NCR schedule-thinning procedures were compared in multielement designs. One schedule (fixed increment) was initially set at fixed-time 10-s reinforcer deliveries and was also thinned according to fixed-time intervals. The other schedule (adjusting IRT) was initially determined by participants' baseline interresponse times (IRTs) for SIB and was thinned based on IRTs observed during subsequent treatment sessions. Results indicated that both schedules were effective in initially reducing SIB and in maintaining response suppression as the schedules were thinned.     

A comparison of differential reinforcement and noncontingent reinforcement for the treatment of a child's multiply controlled problem behavior

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) with escape as the reinforcer were evaluated after an initial functional analysis indicated the problem behaviors exhibited by a 7 year old child were maintained by escape. When NCR and DRO did not decrease the problem behaviors, a second functional analysis was conducted and showed that the behaviors were maintained by attention and escape. DRO with attention and escape as reinforcers was compared to NCR with attention and escape as reinforcers for the treatment of the child's multiply controlled behavior problems. Results showed that DRO and NCR were both effective at reducing the problem behavior to low levels and increasing compliance. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The combined effects of noncontingent reinforcement and punishment on the reduction of rumination

The current study extends the literature on the assessment and treatment of rumination through the evaluation of a combined reinforcement‐ and punishment‐based intervention. The study included a single participant with a history of rumination maintained by automatic reinforcement, as identified via a functional analysis. Both noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) with preferred edible items and punishment, in the form of a facial screen, were implemented separately to evaluate their independent effects on the occurrence of rumination. The final treatment package included both NCR and punishment procedures. Implementation of the combined treatment resulted in a 96.5% reduction in rumination relative to baseline. Procedural modifications and integrity errors also were evaluated.     

Immediate and subsequent effects of differential reinforcement of other behavior and noncontingent matched stimulation on stereotypy

A three‐component multiple‐schedule and brief reversals were used to examine the effects of differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) and noncontingent matched stimulation (NMS) on the automatically reinforced mouthing of a child with autism. Both DRO and NMS decreased immediate engagement in mouthing, but NMS produced larger reductions in the behavior. Furthermore, NMS produced subsequent effects (i.e., when the treatment was withdrawn) similar to those of prior access, whereas DRO marginally increased subsequent engagement in mouthing. The results suggest that NMS was a functionally matched intervention for mouthing. Implications for the assessment and treatment of stereotypy and applications for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of extinction,noncontingent reinforcement and differential reinforcement of other behavior as control procedures

Several techniques have been used in applied research as controls for the introduction of a reinforcement contingency, including extinction, noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Little research, however, has examined the relative strengths and limitations of these "reversal" controls. We compared the effects of extinction with those of NCR and DRO in both multi-element and reversal designs, with respect to (a) rate and amount of response decrement, (b) rate of response recovery following reintroduction of reinforcement, and (c) any positive or negative side effects associated with transitions. Results indicated that extinction generally produced the most consistent and rapid reversal effects, with few observed negative side effects.     

The efficacy of noncontingent reinforcement as treatment for automatically reinforced stereotypy

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), in the form of continuous access to preferred leisure items, has recently been reported as a successful treatment for automatically reinforced aberrant behavior. However, previous research has shown that the outcome of such procedures can be compromised under certain circumstances, such as when the response effort required to access leisure items is increased. The purpose of the current study was to assess the efficacy of two variations of NCR as treatment for automatically reinforced stereotypy. In the first phase of the study, functional analyses revealed that the stereotypy of three individuals with developmental disabilities was maintained independent of social consequences. A sensory class assessment was then conducted to identify the specific sensory products that appeared to maintain the behaviors. Finally, we evaluated the effects of NCR (using stimuli identified in the previous assessments) under two conditions. In the first condition, the leisure item was made freely available, by placing it on the table in front of the participant. In the other condition, an experimenter prompted the participant to interact with the leisure item at the beginning of the session. The results indicated that NCR successfully competed with stereotypy only when participants were prompted to interact with the leisure item. These findings are discussed in the context of developing NCR interventions for automatically reinforced aberrant behavior. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Functional communication training and noncontingent reinforcement in treatment of stereotypy

A 6‐year‐old boy with autism spectrum disorder engaged in automatically maintained stereotypy in the form of opening and closing doors. A functional analysis confirmed that he also emitted problem behavior that was maintained by access to stereotypy. We evaluated the separate and combined effects of functional communication training and arbitrary noncontingent reinforcement on both response classes. Results showed that the combination of functional communication training and noncontingent reinforcement was more effective at reducing stereotypy than either intervention on its own, although effects on problem behavior were unclear. These results suggest that combinations of interventions may be useful in the treatment of automatically maintained problem behavior.     

Developing a treatment for hand‐clapping maintained by automatic reinforcement using sensory analysis,noncontingent reinforcement,and thinning

Two subjects diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and related disabilities who engaged in hand‐clapping maintained by automatic reinforcement participated in this study. We conducted a sensory analysis to evaluate matched stimuli that functioned as an abolishing operation or extinction for different sources of sensory reinforcement. Finally, we implemented noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) using the stimuli found to compete in the assessment to reduce the target behavior, and we thinned item availability. Results showed a decrease in hand‐clapping, and hand‐clapping remained low when we thinned the schedule of reinforcement. This research further elucidates how NCR can treat problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement.     

The effects of noncontingent reinforcement on task disengagement following failure of differential reinforcement treatment

Following the failure of applications of differential reinforcement (DR), the effects of reinforcement delivered noncontingently (NCR) on task disengagement and task completion were evaluated within reversal designs for three children with autism spectrum disorder. In Experiment 1, we compared DR and NCR schedules that combined positive and negative reinforcement. In Experiment 2, we replicated the results of Experiment 1 and then evaluated NCR schedules composed solely of negative reinforcement and NCR schedules that combined negative reinforcement with high-or low-preferred stimuli. In Experiment 3, we further analyzed NCR schedules that included different types and qualities of positive reinforcement, but without the inclusion of negative reinforcement. The results showed that NCR schedules using positive reinforcers can be effective as a treatment for task disengagement, but the type and preference of the reinforcer can alter effectiveness. These results are interpreted in terms of the motivating operations associated with task disengagement.     

The effects of differential negative reinforcement of other behavior and noncontingent escape on compliance

The present study evaluated the effects of noncontingent escape and differential negative reinforcement of other behavior in reducing problem behaviors and increasing compliance in 2 children with disabilities. Results showed that both methods reduced problem behavior and increased compliance for both children.     

A method for identifying satiation versus extinction effects under noncontingent reinforcement schedules

We evaluated one method for determining whether response suppression under noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) is a function of satiation or extinction. Three individuals with developmental disabilities who engaged in self-injurious behavior (SIB) or aggression participated. Results of functional analyses indicated that their problem behavior was maintained by social-positive reinforcement. NCR procedures, individualized for each participant, were implemented in a multiple baseline across subjects design and were associated with decreases in all participants' problem behavior. Identification of the mechanism by which NCR produced these effects was based on examination of cumulative records showing response patterns during and immediately following each NCR session. Satiation during NCR should lead to a temporary increase in responding during the post-NCR (extinction) period due to a transition from the availability to the unavailability of reinforcement (satiation to deprivation). Alternatively, extinction during NCR should reveal no increase in responding during the extinction period because the contingency for the problem behavior would remain unchanged and the transition from satiation to deprivation conditions would be irrelevant. Results suggested that the operative mechanisms of NCR were idiosyncratic across the 3 participants and appeared to change during treatment for 1 of the participants.     

Contingency theory and the effect of the duration of signals for noncontingent reinforcement

Rats learned to approach a light that signaled food when food occurred only after the signal, but did not approach the light when food was equally probable regardless of the signal. When food unpaired with the light was preceded by a 5-sec noise, little learning was evident as well, but when the unpaired food was preceded by a 15-sec noise, approach to the light conditioned stimulus readily occurred. These effects of signal duration are similar to those previously obtained with the effect of free food on free-operant behavior and challenge existing theories of contingency effects in Pavlovian conditioning.     

Nondirective prompting and noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of destructive behavior during hygiene routines.

The escape-maintained destructive behavior of a girl with mental retardation persisted during hygiene routines with directive prompting, differential reinforcement for compliance, and extinction as treatment. Using nondirective prompting and noncontingent reinforcement, destructive behavior was reduced to near-zero levels during the hygiene routine.     

Functional assessment and noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of disruptive vocalization in elderly dementia patients

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) was used as an intervention with 2 elderly dementia patients who engaged in disruptive vocalization. Several assessment procedures, including functional analysis, were conducted to identify reinforcing stimuli for use in the NCR intervention. Functional analyses and the NCR intervention were implemented in each participant's natural environment. NCR was effective in reducing disruptive vocalizations.     

On the relative contributions of noncontingent reinforcement and escape extinction in the treatment of food refusal

In the current investigation, we evaluated the relative effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), escape extinction, and a combination of NCR and escape extinction as treatment for the feeding problems exhibited by 4 children. For each participant, consumption increased only when escape extinction was implemented, independent of whether NCR was present or absent. These results were consistent with prior research suggesting that positive reinforcement alone is insufficient for increasing consumption, and that escape extinction often is necessary to increase and maintain food acceptance. However, NCR appeared to decrease inappropriate behavior for some participants.     

Effects of noncontingent reinforcement on problem behavior and stimulus engagement: the role of satiation, extinction, and alternative reinforcement

This study examined the effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) with and without extinction on problem behavior and stimulus engagement (consumption of reinforcement) of 4 participants. Reductions in problem behavior using NCR have frequently been attributed to both satiation of the reinforcer and extinction. In the current study, aspects of the NCR treatment effects were difficult to explain based solely on either a satiation or an extinction account. Specifically, it was found that stimulus engagement remained high throughout the NCR treatment analysis, and that problem behavior was reduced to near-zero levels during NCR without extinction. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the satiation and extinction hypotheses frequently described in the applied literature. Findings from basic studies examining the effects of response-independent schedules are presented, and are used as the basis for a matching theory account of NCR-related effects. It is proposed that reductions in problem behavior observed during NCR interventions may be a function of the availability of alternative sources of reinforcement.     

Noncontingent reinforcement and competing stimuli in the treatment of pseudoseizures and destructive behaviors

Individuals diagnosed with epilepsy have sometimes also been observed to display ‘pseudoseizures’, or clinical events that mimic those observed during epileptic seizures, but are not associated with abnormal cortical electrical discharges. Several investigators have hypothesized that pseudoseizures, in some proportion of those individuals that display them, may be maintained through operant contingencies. In the present study, this sort of hypothesis was tested in a 10‐year‐old boy with severe mental retardation and a seizure disorder. Informal observations, and later, response‐reinforcer contingencies, revealed that the pseudoseizures, as well as other destructive behaviors, occurred at high rates when they resulted in attention from caregivers. Subsequently, a treatment package consisting of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and competing stimuli was used to decrease levels of seizure‐like activity and other problem behaviors. This study adds to the literature that suggests that seizure‐like activity may come under operant control and extends the use of NCR and competing stimuli to a novel target behavior. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Treatment efficacy of noncontingent reinforcement during brief and extended application

We evaluated the long-term therapeutic effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR). In Experiment 1, NCR effects were examined with 2 participants' arbitrary responses; in Experiment 2, NCR was used as treatment with 3 participants whose self-injurious behavior (SIB) was maintained by automatic reinforcement. In both experiments, NCR consisted of continuous access to a highly preferred leisure item and was implemented initially during 10-min and later during 120-min sessions. Varied reinforcers (leisure items) were subsequently introduced during 120-min sessions to determine if treatment effects might be extended. Finally (Experiment 2 only), NCR was implemented throughout the day in participants' homes. Results of Experiments 1 and 2 showed that reinforcers obtained through object manipulation can compete with those obtained automatically by engaging in SIB during brief NCR sessions. However, data from the 120-min sessions indicated that satiation to a specific leisure item might occur over periods of time more typical of those during which treatment would be implemented. Access to a variety of highly preferred leisure items extended the effectiveness of NCR for some individuals. When NCR was implemented throughout the day (Experiment 2), therapeutic effects were shown to be maintained for up to 1 year.     

Direct and distal effects of noncontingent juice on rumination exhibited by a child with autism

Previous research has demonstrated the efficacy of the noncontingent delivery of foods and liquids at suppressing rumination, the repeated regurgitation and rechewing of partially digested food. However, it is unclear how long this reduction is maintained after caregivers terminate this procedure. The current study examined the direct and distal effects of noncontingent juice on rumination by measuring the duration of rumination during juice delivery and immediately following the termination of juice delivery. Noncontingent juice suppressed rumination, but this suppression was not maintained after delivery termination.