Gray's three-arousal model: an empirical investigation

We evaluated the validity of Gray's and Fowles' three-arousal model in two studies of criminal offenders using a continuous motor task involving rewards and punishments. Consistent with predictions for the behavioral approach/activation system (BAS), offenders displayed significant (p<0.00001) increases in response time and heart rate (HR) from a no-incentive practice phase to a reward-only (experiment 1) and active-avoidance (experiment 2) phase. Trait impulsivity was correlated with the response time index of BAS activation in experiment 1 but not experiment 2. Consistent with predictions for the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), offenders showed a significant increase in number of skin conductance responses (SCRs) (p<0.05) from a reward-only to a mixed-incentive phase in experiment 1 and a significant increase in SC amplitude to punishment cues in both experiments. Consistent with predictions for the dynamics of the model, participants showed significant slowing of response time (p<0.0001) from reward-only (experiment 1) or active avoidance (experiment 2) to mixed-incentive phases despite showing an initial tendency toward response facilitation to the onset of the punishment cue signifying the beginning of the mixed-incentive phases. Participants also showed significant (p<0.002) decreases in HR between these phases in both studies, but this effect was only evident on trial 1. The BIS-influenced response time and HR indices were significantly (p<0.05) correlated with anxiety in experiment 1, but unexpectedly, anxiety was not correlated with SC indices of the BIS in either study. Although much of the data support the validity of the Gray/Fowles model, particular findings suggest that further refinement of this theory is indicated.     

Identity status of black adolescents: an empirical investigation.

The purpose of this study was to assess the identity status of a group of 237 black adolescents. The major finding--that the majority of these adolescents were engaged in the identity-searching process rather than experiencing identity foreclosure--differed from previous research on the black adolescent identity process.     

Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidality: an empirical investigation.

This study investigated the relationship between preference for heavy metal music and vulnerability to suicide among 121 high school students. Heavy metal fans had less strong reasons for living (especially male fans) and had more thoughts of suicide (especially female fans). For a large majority, listening to music (all types) had a positive effect on mood. Overall, the results indicate that preference for heavy metal music among adolescents may be a "red flag" for increased suicidal vulnerability, but also suggest that the source of the problem may lie more in personal and familial characteristics than in any direct effects of the music. Implications for intervention and for future research are discussed.     

Grounding spatial language in perception: an empirical and computational investigation.

The present paper grounds the linguistic cdategorization of space in aspects of visual perception; specifically, the structure of projective spatial terms such as above are grounded in the process of attention and in vector-sum coding of overall direction. This is formalized in the attentional vector-sum (AVS) model. This computational model accurately predicts linguistic acceptability judgments for spatial terms, under a variety of spatial configurations. In 7 experiments, the predictions of the AVS model are tested against those of 3 competing models. The results support the AVS model and disconfirm its competitors. The authors conclude that the structure of linguistic spatial categories can be partially explained in terms of independently motivated perceptual processes.     

Subjective phrase structure: An empirical investigation

The present study represents an attempt to investigate the basis of subjective groupings of words in sentences, employing Edwin Martin's subjective phrase structure technique. Results indicate that subjects base their judgments not only on grammatical structure but also on constituent length and on stress and intonation patterns.A shorter version of this paper was presented to the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Linguistic Association at McGill University, Montreal, May 1972.     

The paradox of promoting creativity in the Asian classroom: an empirical investigation

To shed light on the paradox of promoting creativity in the Asian classroom, the authors conducted 3 studies. The 1st study found that novice teachers classified student behaviors as desirable but uncreative (DBU) versus creative but undesirable (CBU). The 2nd study found that conservative-autocratic teachers were more likely to encourage DBU behaviors in class, whereas liberal-democratic teachers were more likely to encourage CBU behaviors in class. The 3rd study found that cultural individualism-collectivism had a positive impact on liberal-democratic teaching attitude but a negative impact on conservative-autocratic teaching attitude. In turn, liberal-democratic teaching attitude had a positive impact on the tendency to promote CBU behaviors, whereas conservative-autocratic teaching attitude had a positive impact on the tendency to promote DBU behaviors.     

Behavior systems and reinforcement: an integrative approach.

Most traditional conceptions of reinforcement are based on a simple causal model in which responding is strengthened by the presentation of a reinforcer. I argue that reinforcement is better viewed as the outcome of constraint of a functioning causal system comprised of multiple interrelated causal sequences, complex linkages between causes and effects, and a set of initial conditions. Using a simplified system conception of the reinforcement situation, I review the similarities and drawbacks of traditional reinforcement models and analyze the recent contributions of cognitive, regulatory, and ecological approaches. Finally, I show how the concept of behavior systems can begin to incorporate both traditional and recent conceptions of reinforcement in an integrative approach.     

Frame-of-reference training and cognitive categorization: an empirical investigation of rater memory issues.

We considered the effects of frame-of-reference (FOR) training on raters' ability to correctly classify ratee performance as well as their ability to recognize previously observed behaviors. The purpose was to examine the cognitive changes associated with FOR training to better understand why such training generally improves rating accuracy. We trained college students (N = 94) using either FOR or control procedures, had them observe three managers on videotape, and rate the managers on three performance dimensions. Results supported our hypotheses that, compared with control training, FOR training led to better rating accuracy and better classification accuracy. Also consistent with predictions, FOR training resulted in lower decision criteria (i.e., higher bias) and lower behavioral accuracy on a recognition memory task involving impression-consistent behaviors. The implications of these results are discussed, particularly in terms of the ability of FOR-trained raters to provide accurate performance feedback to ratees.     

Mother-blaming in family therapy: An empirical investigation

Abstract

This study tested two hypotheses derived from the feminist critique of family therapy in a sample of AAMFT members. The stimulus was a brief vignette of an initial therapy session with a family presenting a teen-aged child as the identified patient. It was hypothesized that family therapists would rate the mothers in the vignette as more dysfunctional than fathers. It was also hypothesized that mothers would be asked to bear more of the burden of change in treatment plans written by subjects. Neither hypothesis was supported. However, respondents did rate the concerned parent, regardless of sex, as more dysfunctional. Since this is a role often occupied by women, this finding may indicate some gender bias.     

Personality Assessment Inventory profiles of deployed combat troops: an empirical investigation of normative performance

The present study examined the normative scores and psychometric properties of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) within a non-treatment-seeking sample of soldiers deployed to combat zones in Iraq, compared with a sample of community adults matched with respect to age and gender. Results indicate the scores and properties of the PAI scales were generally quite similar in the Iraq and community samples, with modest differences emerging on only 3 subscales addressing antisocial behavior, issues with close relationships, and interpersonal vigilance. These results suggest that standard normative interpretation of PAI scales is appropriate even when the instrument is administered in a combat zone. In comparison with prior research, the results may suggest that documented mental health issues among combat veterans, when present, may be particularly likely to emerge postdeployment.     

The problem of empirical redundancy of constructs in organizational research: An empirical investigation

Construct empirical redundancy may be a major problem in organizational research today. In this paper, we explain and empirically illustrate a method for investigating this potential problem. We applied the method to examine the empirical redundancy of job satisfaction (JS) and organizational commitment (OC), two well-established organizational constructs. Analysis based on responses from a sample of 292 employees collected at two occasions showed that: (a) the construct-level correlation between JS and OC was very high (.91) and (b) both JS and OC are similarly related to positive affectivity and negative affectivity. These results suggest that the constructs may be empirically indistinguishable, despite their well-established conceptual distinction. These findings illustrate the problem of empirical redundancy of organizational constructs and provide a basis for a possible movement towards parsimony in the realm of constructs that could open the way to more rapid advances in knowledge in organizational research.     

Toward an empirically based parameter selection for time-sampling observation systems

The measurement error of time-sampling observation systems, used to estimate the frequencyof behavioral events, was analyzed by means of a five-factor design, computer simulation experiment. The first three factors represented response parameters: the relative frequency and duration of the behavior and the pattern of response distribution. For each combination of frequency, pattern, and duration, five simulated behavior events were generated within a simulated observation period of 900 sec. A total of 21 different time-sampling systems was employed. As a fourth factor three different observe and record lengths were included (6, 12, and 60 sec). In addition, there were seven different ratios of “observe” to “record” interval length (5∶1, 3∶1, 2∶1, 1∶1, 1∶2, 1∶3, and 1∶5) representing the fifth factor. Thus, 21 time-sampling systems scanned a total of 120 different behavior simulations from 24 types of behavior parameter combinations. The data were analyzed by means of a five-factor (2 × 3 × 4 × 3 × 7) analysis of variance with repeated measures on two factors. The study demonstrated that time sampling leads to high average measurement errors, which are determined by complex interrelationships among a variety of variables. Choosing a time-sampling system arbitrarily may lead to highly erroneous data. It was also shown, however, that time-sampling systems have the potential to yield very accurate results. An empirical selection procedure for time-sampling intervals is proposed to minimize measurement error. Exemplary tables are presented from which time-sampling parameters can be chosen given that the rate, duration, and pattern of occurrence of a behavior to be observed are known.     

Suicide schemas in non-affective psychosis: An empirical investigation

Suicide is the leading cause of premature death among individuals experiencing psychosis. The risk of suicide is proposed to increase with a greater potential for activation of suicide related schemas. Empirical representations of suicide schemas were compared between individuals experiencing non-affective psychosis, with and without a history of suicidal behaviour. Employing a cross-sectional between-groups comparison design, 84 participants, previously diagnosed with a non-affective psychotic disorder, were recruited from community mental health services. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire and clinical measures of psychopathology. To assess participants’ suicide schemas, a series of direct and indirect cognitive tasks were designed and administered. Pathfinder analysis enabled the construction of empirically derived representations of the groups’ suicide schemas based on responses to the cognitive tasks. The suicide group achieved significantly greater scores on measures of anxiety, depression, hopelessness and suicidality than the non-suicide group, but not on measures indicative of the severity of psychosis. The suicide schema for the suicide group was more elaborate and extensive than for the non-suicide group, even when clinical measures were taken into account. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.     

Negotiated belief structures and decision performance: An empirical investigation

When a group approaches a decision, each member may hold a schema for the information domain of the issue in question. A negotiated belief structure represents the politically enacted collection of schemata employed by the group in their deliberations. The aggregation of these schemata is marked by two structural properties—realized coverage and realized consensus. An examination of 713 product decisions made by 29 firms in a simulated business environment indicates that these structural properties are systematically related to product and firm performance.     

Parent-adolescent conflict: an empirical review

Conflict between parents and adolescents is usually seen as a normal and necessary part of human development. However, treatment approaches for problematic conflict differ depending on several variables including theoretical orientation of the clinician. This article compares and contrasts psychoanalytic, systems, and social learning theories in order to determine the empirical support for each. In addition, several issues inherent in parent-adolescent conflict are reviewed including developmental stage theory, parenting styles, peer pressures, communications skills, marital conflict, drugs, school, and sex. Several studies and reviews of the literature are examined for common conclusions. Finally, an integrated and empirically supported model to explain parent-adolescent conflict is described.     

Out-of school youth in high-unemployment areas: An empirical investigation

A total of 551 interviews were conducted with 16-20 year olds living in high unemployment areas in Liverpool, London, Manchester and Wolverhampton. The diverse ways in which the young unemployed react to their predicaments are described, and explanations are offered for why black youth tend to be less acquiescent than whites. Overall, however, the analysis emphasises the ability of the young people at greatest risk of unemployment to devise their own coping strategies. Counsellors and other careers workers are advised to take these into account: otherwise their efforts are likely to be discounted by their clients.