从心理理论与执行功能的关系看孤独症

孤独症是一种病因未明的广泛性发展障碍,它的诊断主要基于患者的行为表现。针对这些行为特点,研究者们提出了心理理论缺失说和执行功能障碍说。但是,有研究表明孤独症患者并不是在所有的心理理论任务和执行功能任务上都存在障碍。所以,单纯地采用心理理论缺失说或执行功能障碍说都不能完整解释孤独症症状。一般来说,心理理论缺失的孤独症个体,同时也伴有执行功能障碍。近年来,大量的研究结果发现,心理理论与执行功能确实存在紧密联系。然而,目前对它们关系的考察主要集中在学龄前儿童的错误信念理解和抑制控制上。心理理论与执行功能都分别包含许多成分,它们彼此的关系可能会在不同年龄段发生变化。因此,研究者需要进一步探查不同年龄段,不同心理理论任务与执行功能不同成分与范式之间的关系,并将这种关系应用于临床实践,帮助诊断和培训孤独症个体。     

不同维度的执行功能与早期心理理论的关系

采用意外地点任务、意外内容任务和三种不同类型的执行功能任务来探究执行功能与心理理论之间的关系。共60名被试,3岁和4岁被试各30名,男女各半。区分自己心理状态和他人心理状态能力与执行功能的关系主要体现在混合成分执行功能与这一能力的密切联系上;在错误信念发展的早期,执行功能与错误信念理解能力的关系主要集中在“混合成分的执行功能与对自己错误信念理解能力,工作记忆的执行功能与对他人错误信念理解能力”这两对联系上     

7～9岁儿童失言理解与执行功能的关系

为了说明学龄儿童心理理论与执行功能的关系,研究采用失言理解、威斯康星卡片分类和汉诺塔任务分别考察了90名7—9岁儿童的心理理论和执行功能。结果表明,失言理解与抑制-转换能力相关显著（r=0．34,P〈0．01）,但是与计划能力相关不显著（r=0．06,P〉0．05）。在控制年龄后,失言理解与抑制-转换能力的相关仍然显著（r=0．29,P〈0．05）。研究结果说明,学龄儿童心理理论与执行功能的相关模式与学龄前儿童完全一致,提示心理理论与执行功能的相关关系从学龄前延续到了学龄阶段。     

幼儿选择性信任与心理理论和执行功能的关联:来自追踪研究的证据

研究选取122名3到5岁幼儿,同时测量了选择性信任、心理理论和执行功能,并控制了幼儿的语言能力,通过追踪研究进行交叉滞后回归分析探讨了幼儿选择性信任与心理理论和执行功能之间的关联。结果表明:幼儿的选择性信任与执行功能呈显著正相关,控制了幼儿的年龄和语言能力之后,相关仍然显著;第一年的选择性信任可以正向预测第二年的执行功能,而第一年的执行功能不能预测第二年的选择性信任;选择性信任与心理理论之间不存在纵向的相互关联。该结果为幼儿选择性信任领域的争议提供了重要的证据支持。     

Development of theory of mind and executive control

Several recent studies have demonstrated a developmental link, in the age range of 3–5 years, between the acquisition of a ‘theory of mind’ and self control. In this review, we consider the existence of such a link in assessing five competing theoretical hypotheses that might help us to understand the nature of this developmental advance: (1) executive control depends on theory of mind; (2) theory of mind development depends on executive control; (3) the relevant theory of mind tasks require executive control; (4) both kinds of task require the same kind of embedded conditional reasoning; (5) theory of mind and executive control involve the same brain region. We briefly describe these theoretical accounts and evaluate them in the light of existing empirical evidence. At present, only account (3) can be ruled out with some confidence.     

聋童执行功能发展：聋童与正常儿童的比较

利用标准Dimensional Change Card Sort任务(DCCS),对76名智力正常的3~8岁聋童和78名3~5.5岁的正常儿童进行了对比测试,旨在考察聋童执行功能发展的年龄特征与发展水平。结果发现,3岁组的聋童和正常儿童在DCCS任务上的表现没有显著性差异,但正常儿童在4~4.5岁时进入一个迅速发展期,而聋童要在6岁时才有快速的发展,到7岁后才相当于正常儿童5岁的发展水平,大约滞后2年。研究认为,造成聋童执行功能发展滞后的原因主要有：（1）语言符号系统和聋童特有的符号系统之间可能存在的差异;（2）聋童可能存在计划和灵活性的缺陷;（3）聋童可能存在命名和标识策略上的困难和注意机制的缺陷。结合关于聋童心理理论发展滞后于正常儿童7年以上的报道,心理理论发展和执行功能发展在聋童身上表现出较大的不一致性。     

Phonological awareness, executive functioning, and theory of mind

Language plays a critical role in theory of mind (ToM) development, particularly the understanding of false beliefs (FB). Further, there is some evidence that the development of FB is important for metalinguistic development, such as the understanding of homonyms and synonyms. However, there is debate regarding the nature of this relationship. This study explored the role of ToM, including FB, understanding and executive function in another aspect of metalinguistic development involving phonological awareness, specifically rhyming. Of interest was the relative role of ToM and executive function, particularly inhibitory control, in children's ability to identify rhymes. Two studies of 4-year-olds demonstrated that ToM understanding was primarily associated with rhyming ability, whereas inhibitory control was not independently related. Results are discussed in terms of children's ability to flexibly shift between different perspectives, by bracketing one perspective and focusing on the other, in both metalinguistic and ToM tasks.     

Younger drivers executive functioning and the relationship with experiencing signs of sleepiness

Young drivers are more likely to continue driving when experiencing signs of sleepiness and are over-represented in sleep-related crashes. Adolescence and early adulthood are characterised by comparatively poor executive functioning, and while previous research has demonstrated a link between poor executive functions and several risky driving behaviours, the relationship with sleepy driving is not well understood. Accordingly, the first aim of the current study was to examine the association between executive functions and experiencing the signs of driver sleepiness in a sample of young adult drivers. Additionally, young drivers who have less experience with driving while sleepy, may attribute less importance to the signs of sleepiness as an indicator of underlying sleepiness level. To test this assumption (aim two), the impact of experiencing signs of sleepiness on perceptions of the importance of those signs was examined. Participants included 118 young adults aged between 17 and 25 years, who completed an online survey measuring experiences with the signs of sleepiness while driving, executive functions, and demographic characteristics. This sample of young adults reported having considerable experience with several signs of sleepiness (i.e., yawning, mind wandering, and difficulty keeping eyes while driving). A linear regression analysis found that the demographic variables of age and hours driven per week, as well as the executive function constructs of organization, strategic planning, and impulse control were associated with experiencing signs or sleepiness. Moreover, having experienced more signs of sleepiness was associated with an increased likelihood in rating those signs as important indicators of sleepiness. The current findings suggest both that several high-level cognitive processes as well as levels of experience with driving when experiencing signs of sleepiness contribute to young peoples’ sleepy driving.     

成年个体的心理理论与执行功能

为了说明成年个体心理理论与执行功能的发展及两者的关系,在匹配了智商和教育水平条件下,采用心理理论故事理解任务、失言理解任务和威斯康星卡片分类任务分别探察了30名62~77岁的老年人和30名19~25岁青年人的心理理论和执行功能。结果表明,老年人和青年人在2种心理理论任务上的得分与卡片分类任务的得分都不存在显著相关,老年人在失言任务上的得分显著低于青年人,在心理理论故事理解任务上和威斯康星卡片分类任务上,老年人的表现与青年人没有显著差异。结合已有的研究结果提示：心理理论与执行功能的相关模式在成年和学前阶段是不同的。     

Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: clues to developmental primacy

There has been much theoretical discussion of a functional link between theory of mind (ToM) and executive function (EF) in autism. This study sought to establish the relationship between ToM and EF in young children with autism (M = 5 years, 6 months) and to examine issues of developmental primacy. Thirty children with autism and 40 typically developing children, matched on age and ability, were assessed on a battery of tasks measuring ToM (1st- and 2nd-order false belief) and components of EF (planning, set shifting, inhibition). A significant correlation emerged between ToM and EF variables in the autism group, independent of age and ability, while ToM and higher order planning ability remained significantly related in the comparison group. Examination of the pattern of ToM-EF impairments in the autism group revealed dissociations in 1 direction only: impaired ToM with intact EF. These findings support the view that EF may be 1 important factor in the advancement of ToM understanding in autism. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Cognitive and emotional aspects of self-regulation in preschoolers

The goal of the present study was to examine the contribution of executive function (EF) and social cognition to individual differences in emotion regulation (ER) in preschool children. Sixty 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children were administered a battery of EF tasks, two theory of mind tasks, a measure of verbal ability, and an ER task. In addition, parents completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning—Preschool Version (BRIEF-P). Performance on the theory of mind tasks as well as parental ratings of executive function was not related to performance on the ER task. However, a component of EF (i.e., inhibition) approached significance with children's displays of positive behaviors during the ER task. Verbal ability was related to the regulation of positive but not negative emotions. Parental ratings of shifting accounted for a significant amount of variance in parental ratings of ER, even after controlling for verbal ability. The findings are discussed in the context of different conceptualizations of the developmental relation between ER and EF.     

The development of executive functioning and theory of mind. A comparison of Chinese and U.S. preschoolers

Preschoolers' theory-of-mind development follows a similar age trajectory across many cultures. To determine whether these similarities are related to similar underlying ontogenetic processes, we examined whether the relation between theory of mind and executive function commonly found among U.S. preschoolers is also present among Chinese preschoolers. Preschoolers from Beijing, China (N= 109), were administered theory-of-mind and executive-functioning tasks, and their performance was compared with that of a previously studied sample of U.S. preschoolers (N= 107). The Chinese preschoolers outperformed their U.S. counterparts on all measures of executive functioning, but were not similarly advanced in theory-of-mind reasoning. Nonetheless, individual differences in executive functioning predicted theory of mind for children in both cultures. Thus, the relation between executive functioning and theory of mind is robust across two disparate cultures. These findings shed light on why executive functioning is important for theory-of-mind development.     

Effects of early sensorimotor disorder on contextual learning in autism

Cognitive explanations of autism often involve higher order cognitive functions developing late in childhood, such as theory of mind, executive functions or central coherence. In home videos of infants later diagnosed with autism, children display early signs of developmental disorders, for example impaired sensorimotor functions, attention to social and non-social stimuli and a lack of circadian regulation. We propose that these early signs need to be understood using a framework of context learning. It is also important to understand the role for context understanding in guiding the maturation of behavior. The role for inhibition in context learning as understood within learning theory provides us with helpful tools for this analysis. Our research aim is not to identify and explain early markers for autism, but to understand the cognitive developmental pathway set into rolling by an early impairment. This will help us understand the seemingly unrelated symptoms that define the complex syndrome of autism.     

心理理论和语言能力的关系

心理理论和语言能力的关系已日益引起研究者们的关注.文章综述了以非人灵长类动物、正常儿童和特殊人群为对象进行的有关心理理论和语言关系的研究,从比较和发展的角度进行了理论分析.提出一定的语言能力水平也许是通过心理理论测试的前提条件,但二者有着不同的发展规律,并表现为复杂的共存关系.     

从心理理论的脑机制研究看心理理论与执行功能的关系

心理理论发展与执行功能的关系以及心理理论脑机制的研究是近年来心理理论研究中的一个热点。文章首先对心理理论与执行功能关系的研究现状进行了分析与概括,提出了目前研究中的问题;然后从介绍了心理理论脑机制研究现状,并以此为基础探讨了心理理论与执行功能的关系。     

Socio-economic status,executive functions,and theory of mind ability in adolescents: Relationships with language ability and cortisol

Socio-economic status (SES) is linked to the development of cognitive abilities, particularly language and executive processes. It is unclear whether these represent a single or independent correlates. We studied 110 Ecuadorian youths aged 12–17 with measures of SES, language, executive function, and theory of mind (ToM), a.k.a. mentalizing. A subsample gave hair samples to estimate recent cortisol levels. Restricting analyses to reliable measures, SES was highly associated with language skill, and to a lesser extent with executive function and ToM performance. However, those latter associations were attenuated and non-significant when language ability was controlled for statistically. Systemic cortisol levels were not associated with SES, but were significantly and negatively correlated with ToM, independent of variation in language skills. We conclude that language development underlies most of the impact of SES on executive function and ToM ability of adolescents, but that stress-related cortisol may have an independent, direct effect on mentalizing.     

Differential recruitment of executive resources during mind wandering

Recent research has shown that mind wandering recruits executive resources away from the external task towards inner thoughts. No studies however have determined whether executive functions are drawn away in a unitary manner during mind wandering episodes, or whether there is variation in specific functions impacted. Accordingly, we examined whether mind wandering differentially modulates three core executive functions—response inhibition, updating of working memory, and mental set shifting. In three experiments, participants performed one of these three executive function tasks and reported their attentional state as either on-task or mind wandering at random intervals. We found that mind wandering led to poorer performance in the response inhibition and working memory tasks, but not the set-shifting task. These findings suggest that mind wandering does not recruit executive functions in a monolithic manner. Rather, it appears to selectively engage certain executive functions, which may reflect the adaptive maintenance of ongoing task performance.     

2～3.5岁儿童执行功能发展特点及其言语能力的影响

2~3.5岁是婴儿成长到幼儿的重要发展转折期,也是儿童执行功能及言语能力的发展萌芽期。研究通过测查北京市81名2~3.5岁儿童在固定盒子任务、搭积木任务、A非B任务和皮博迪图片词汇测验上的表现,探究了该年龄段儿童执行功能的发展特点、各成分间的内部关系、以及言语能力对执行功能的影响。结果发现:(1)在2~3.5岁期间,除认知灵活性外,儿童的工作记忆与抑制控制均快速发展,其中,2.5岁前后是工作记忆与抑制控制的重要发展时期;(2)在2~3岁期间,认知灵活性与工作记忆之间相关密切,在3~3.5岁期间,认知灵活性与抑制控制的相关密切,3岁是儿童执行功能内部成分关系的重要发展转折期;(3)在2~3.5岁期间,儿童言语能力呈现快速发展,并且言语能力对该年龄段执行功能各成分间关系产生一定的影响,但不同言语能力的儿童在执行功能各成分的表现并没有显著差异。     

Theory of Mind and Executive Functions in Young Bilingual Children

Few studies have explored the relationship between theory of mind (ToM), executive function (EF), and bilingualism at the same time. In this study 14 young bilingual children were compared with monolingual children on a test battery composed of 5 ToM tests, 5 EF tests, and 1 test of general language ability. The result showed that despite significantly lower verbal ability, the bilingual children outperformed the monolingual ones on tests of EF. There were no differences in ToM performance. The authors argue that there is a strong relationship between bilingualism and EF, but, contrary to results from earlier studies, they could not find any relationship between bilingualism and ToM. EF did not predict ToM performance. Lack of a significant relationship could be due to the children's young age and consequently their low scores on the ToM tasks.     

Executive function and theory of mind: Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4

Despite robust associations between children's theory of mind (ToM) and executive function (EF) skills, longitudinal studies examining this association remain scarce. In a socially diverse sample of 122 children (seen at ages 2, 3, and 4), this study examined (a) developmental stability of associations between ToM, EF, verbal ability, and social disadvantage; (b) continuity and change in ToM and EF; and (c) predictive relations between ToM and EF. Verbal ability and social disadvantage independently predicted changes in EF (but not ToM). Task scores improved with age and showed stable individual differences. The authors examined predictive relations between ToM and EF using partial correlations (controlling for age and verbal ability) and hierarchical regressions (that also controlled for social disadvantage and initial ToM and EF). The findings provide only partial support for the view that ToM is a prerequisite for EF but stronger support for the proposal that EF facilitates children's performance on ToM tasks.