The use of computer-controlled video disks in the study of spatial learning

The empirical study of spatial learning has been constrained by a range of methodological and technical limitations. Part of these are due to constraints in the stimulus delivery systems for pictorial displays that are available to the researcher. Surrogate travel systems—based on model photography, off-line computer graphics, and on-line computer graphics—provide alternative research settings. Yet none of the systems provides for both detailed displays and ease of subject interaction, both of which prove important in the investigation of spatial learning. Computer-controlled video-disk systems do allow both detail and interaction, therefore providing a research tool in which spatial learning phenomena can be observed carefully. A pilot study of spatial learning using a video-disk system is briefly described to demonstrate the sorts of phenomena observable with such a system.     

Microfeedback: Biofeedback Monitoring Using Home Computers - a Pilot Study

The increasing focus on information technology has led to widespread growth in the use of microcomputer systems in counselling settings. While many applications depend on expensive and sophisticated equipment, the humble home computer has many facilities to offer. High resolution graphics and versatile control interfacing, designed for games use, enable easy adaptation to tasks such as visual presentation of biofeedback with the facility for data retention and analysis. A pilot system based on the Commodore 64 is described.     

AVID: An intelligent CAI system for small computers

A computer-assisted instruction (CAI) system which includes facilities for interactive graphics and for limited natural language processing has been implemented on a DEC PDP-11 minicomputer. Lesson authoring aids permit inexperienced authors to create lessons with ease and permit transporting lessons to and from other systems. The system supports eight simultaneous independent users and provides facilities for student performance evaluation and record management.     

FOCLAB: A language for computer-controlled psychology research

The FOCLAB system, a dialect of FOCAL, provides complete real-time experiment control and data acquisition capabilities in the area of experimental psychology. The language provides digital and analog input/output, graphics (including alphanumerics) on a refresh CRT, and a powerful set of time measurement operations. With these facilities FOCAL may be used in cognitive and operant, as well as psychophysiological research. FOCLAB will operate with either PDP-8 or PDP-12 systems, and can control most of the currently existing lab interface options for these computers. The system will operate on 8K core-only machines, as well as under OS/8.     

Millisecond timing on PCs and Macs

A real-time, object-oriented solution for displaying stimuli on Windows 95/98, MacOS and Linux platforms is presented. The program, written in C++, utilizes a special-purpose window class (GLWindow), OpenGL, and 32-bit graphics acceleration; it avoids display timing uncertainty by substituting the new window class for the default window code for each system. We report the outcome of tests for real-time capability across PC and Mac platforms running a variety of operating systems. The test program, which can be used as a shell for programming real-time experiments and testing specific processors, is available at http://www.cs.dal.ca/~macinnwj. We propose to provide researchers with a sense of the usefulness of our program, highlight the ability of many multitasking environments to achieve real time, as well as caution users about systems that may not achieve real time, even under optimal conditions.     

Graphics for three-term contingencies

A source of confusion in the general readership regarding the relationship of operant to S-R psychology is traced to the use of graphics in the behavioral literature. A case is made for supplementing traditional linear notation systems with triangular graphics to illustrate three-term contingencies. Constructing discriminative stimuli in this fashion makes the distinction between operant and S-R formulations more conspicuous and reveals more comprehensive relationships for an extended radical behaviorism.     

A Cognitive Theory of Graphical and Linguistic Reasoning: Logic and Implementation

We discuss external and internal graphical and linguistic representational systems. We argue that a cognitive theory of peoples' reasoning performance must account for (a) the logical equivalence of inferences expressed in graphical and linguistic form, and (b) the implementational differences that affect facility of inference. Our theory proposes that graphical representation limit abstraction and thereby aid “processibility”. We discuss the ideas of specificity and abstraction, and their cognitive relevance. Empirical support both comes from tasks which involve the manipulation of external graphics and tasks that do not. For the former, we take Euler's (1772) circles, provide a novel computational reconstruction, show how it captures abstractions, and contrast it with earlier construals and with Johnson-Laird's (1983) mental models representations. We demonstrate equivalence of the graphical Euler system, and the nongraphical mental models system. For tasks not involving manipulation of external graphics, we discuss text comprehension, and the mental performance of syllogisms. By positing an internal system with the same specificity as Euler's circles, we cover the mental models data, and generate new empirical predictions. Finally, we consider how the architecture of working memory explains why such specific representations are relatively easy to store.     

Graphics software and hardware for RT-11 systems

A general-purpose graphics package is described that allows the user to generate figures with a supraset of the basic CalComp plotting subroutines. The software runs under RT-11 on an LSI-11 with 28K words of memory. The graphics subroutine library is approximately 200 blocks long. The plotting tasks are passed over an RS 232 line to a simple extension of an inexpensive and commercially available graphics controller. The controller implements these tasks as plotting instructions to a color television, a vector display, and a digital plotter. The graphics subroutines are written in FORTRAN and are invoked by the user as subroutine calls from a FORTRAN program. The graphics controller is a modified Motorola “Micro Chroma 68 Kit.” The board is based on the 6808 microprocessor and 6847 video controller. It provides eight graphic modes from 64 by 32 eight-color graphics to 128 by 192 four-color graphics to 256 by 192 two-color graphics. The present software and hardware implements the graphics subroutines as 256 by 192 two-color graphics, as 512 by 512 vector graphics, and as stepping instructions for a digital plotter.     

Tachistoscopic presentation and millisecond timing on the IBM PC/XT/AT and PS/2: A Turbo Pascal unit to provide general-purpose routines for CGA,Hercules, EGA,and VGA monitors

A review of the literature on adopting microcomputers for use in tachistoscopic research paradigms illustrates the need for a comprehensive package to effectively deal with the wide variety of video displays and microcomputers used in experimental settings. In addition, because of the large number of possible configurations created when video displays and computer systems are combined, there is a need to be able to efficiently drive any such combination without rewriting program code. A Turbo Pascal unit is presented to provide standard tachistoseopic routines compatible with monochrome, CGA, Hercules, EGA, and VGA video technology. Procedures that synchronize both text and graphics mode stimuli with the vertical retrace pulse are given, as are routines to provide access to a timer with better than millisecond precision. Pascal code is described that will run on the IBM PC, XT, AT, or PS/2, as well as on any compatible machine. The versatility of the unit allows the experimenter to use generic video and timer commands that will automatically adapt at run time to the system that is being used, without further experimenter intervention.     

The Effect of Advances in Video Game Technology and Content on Aggressive Cognitions,Hostility, and Heart Rate

Two studies were conducted that tested the moderating role of video game graphics quality in the relationship between video game content and aggression-related variables. In both studies, participants played either a violent or nonviolent video game on one of three video game systems with differing technological computing power (which contributes to the realism depicted in these video games). In Study 2, the moderating and mediating role of immersion was also tested. Results showed that video game violence exposure was related to aggressive cognitions and state of hostility. Video game technology did not moderate this relationship. Finally, immersion, as an individual difference variable, did not moderate or mediate this relationship. This suggests that aggressive cognitions and feelings occur independent of how technologically advanced the graphics are and the extent to which one feels as though they are immersed in a violent video game. Implications and future research are discussed.     

Optical and electronic systems for spatial and temporal analysis of video images

In this paper are described two systems for spatial (two-dimensional coordinates) and temporal analysis of video images. In the optical version, the Apple IIe generates a pointer on an Apple monitor; the pointer is then superimposed on the video image of a second video monitor, by reflecting the pointer with a half-silvered mirror. In the electronic version, a special card was designed for the Apple IIe to generate a pointer directly on the other video monitor. Both systems use the same software. The procedures of spatial and temporal data acquisition and storage are described as well as the reading, writing, printing, removing, listing, chaining, and dating operations of the digital and graphics files.     

A multiprocessor system for generating visual displays and controlling experiments

A laboratory is described that is based on an IMSAI 8080 microcomputer and an IMLAC graphics display system. Procedures for using the system are described and illustrated.     

Infrared touch technology as a response detector in animal research

The construction of a computerized research system is described. Stimuli are presented to a pigeon on a color television monitor. Pecks at the television screen are detected by a network of multiplexed infrared emitters and detectors; the coordinates of the peck are transmitted to the host computer. Computer graphics allows the experimenter to simultaneously present a variety of forms and colors as stimuli. The system accommodates innovative research methodology in animal cognition, animal psychophysics, comparative psychology, and other research interests. With modification, the system can be used with other species, including humans.     

The potential of the visual image at the interface

This article shows how the study of graphic interfacing has great potential for being an important applied domain for testing, evaluating, and implementing basic cognitive theories. It also describes various applications in which the inclusion of computer graphics can be beneficial while being inappropriate for others. Emphasis is placed on the need for future developments to be based on psychological and ergonomic principles in order that the merit of computer graphics is not based purely on cosmetic grounds. Concomitantly, it is argued that academic research needs also to continue refining our understanding of human performance and subsequently to direct these findings into a set of practical guidelines for designers. If this approach is taken, we may indeed find ourselves in an Information Age in which the visual image is seen to be playing a much more prominent role. In particular, the situation may arise in which tasks previously performed only through difficult and tedious programming language will become more accessible through easy-to-use and enjoyable graphic interfaced systems. The ultimate challenge, however, will be to see how the combination of visual and other forms of symbolic communication can be utilized at the interface, in such a way that a variety of computer systems for a diversity of applications can be designed that will be readily accessible to a greater number. Ours is the visual age. We are bombarded with images from morning till night. —Gombrich (1982)     

An interactive,interdisciplinary, on-line graphics system for presenting and manipulating directed graphs

An interactive graphics system has been implemented for tutorial purposes and for research in man-machine communication of structural digraphs. An IMLAC intelligent terminal with lightpen input is used in conjunction with a NOVA minicomputer. Successful applications in linguistics and engineering problem solving will be discussed, the latter one in detail.     

NeXT in the psychology laboratory: An example of an auditory pattern tracking task

The NeXT computer system is a relatively new, inexpensive, 68040-based computer with high computational power, storage, graphics, audio, and other capabilities. The present article examines the effectiveness of the NeXT for studies of auditory sequential memory. In these studies, subjects track the time of occurrence of a sequence of tones, using a mouse that controls the position of sliders represented on the computer screen interface. This interface allows the subject to represent the different sounds on the y-axis and the time of their occurrence on the x-axis. The computer produces random orders of stimulus sequences, provides feedback, and stores and transforms accuracy and response time data from the slider positions for subsequent analysis. A tutorial for the development of this interface and its variations is provided. As well, procedures for programming the experiment and the operation of the interface are described, accompanied by a frank account of issues surrounding development and management. It is concluded that high-quality sound and ease of both graphics interface design and program modification make NeXT an attractive option for research on auditory sequential order, promising much for further applications as well. Successful use of the NeXT, however, demands much from technical personnel for both programming and system management.     

Independent control of dual video subsystems on the IBM PC and compatibles

Two methods for generating video output on multiple video monitors are described. The first method involves splitting the signal from a single video adaptor card-so that multiple video monitors may be attached. Although this method is simple and relatively cost-effective, it is limited to adaptors that produce only digital video signals, thus precluding the use of VGA systems and composite displays. The second method involves the installation and programming of video adaptors: Two sample programs, which control a secondary adaptor by means of either BIOS routines or direct commands via C code, are described. Although more complex, this second method allows output to each display to be controlled independently. Furthermore, output to one screen may consist of graphics information while output to the second screen consists of text. Together, both methods can be used to create an experimental system composed of multiple data-collection stations and an independent experimenter console.     

An Apple microcomputer-based laboratory system for the study of visual-motor behavior

An apparatus for studying motor control and visual-motor coordination is described. The system consists of an Apple II+ with two expansions boards installed. One board provides advanced graphics capabilities; the other interfaces the Apple with a digitizing tablet and also provides a real-time clock. Target stimulus and visual feedback concerning self-produced movement (i.e., a cursor) are displayed on a standard video monitor, and movement data are sampled by the digitizing tablet. Software consists of about 3K bytes of assembled 6502 code and a 2K byte Applesoft BASIC program. The system is inexpensive, versatile, and particularly well suited for developmental research. It has been used with human subjects as young as 3 years of age.     

Older readers can be distracted by embellishing graphics in text

In most research on graphics in text students learn the content for a test (e.g., Mayer, 2002). The present study examined whether one of the principles from that literature, namely the deleterious effect of extraneous graphic information, would apply to adults who were consulting a leaflet to answer questions. The study used a mixed factorial design with 48 participants from three age bands (young-adult, young-old, old-old). Participants used two leaflets to answer questions, one without graphics and the other with either extraneous embellishing or supportive explanatory graphics. Relative to leaflets without graphics, the old-old participants were significantly slower finding information when leaflets contained embellishing but not explanatory graphics. The graphics had no effect on the other age groups. These findings suggest that either the reading task or the thematic relevance of the extraneous graphics may limit their negative effects for most adults but that negative effects recur for older readers.