Children's influence in the marital relationship.

In a 3-wave longitudinal study, the authors tested hypotheses regarding children's influence on the marital relationship, examining relations between interparental discord and children's negative emotional reactivity, agentic behavior, dysregulated behavior, and psychosocial adjustment. Participants were 232 cohabiting mothers and fathers who completed questionnaires and a marital conflict resolution task. Consistent with theory, interparental discord related to children's negative emotional reactivity, which in turn related to children's agentic and dysregulated behavior. Agentic behavior related to decreases in interparental discord, whereas dysregulated behavior related to increases in discord and elevations in children's adjustment problems. Person-oriented analyses of agentic and dysregulated responses indicated distinct clusters of children linked with meaningful individual differences in marital and psychosocial functioning. Results are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms of child effects, such as increased parental awareness of children's distress potentially leading to reduced marital conflict.     

Delineating the sequelae of destructive and constructive interparental conflict for children within an evolutionary framework

We examined the joint role of constructive and destructive interparental conflict in predicting children's emotional insecurity and psychological problems. In Study 1, 250 early adolescents (M = 12.6 years) and their primary caregivers completed assessments of family and child functioning. In Study 2, 201 mothers and their 2-year-old children participated in a multimethod, longitudinal design with 3 annual measurement occasions. Findings from structural equation modeling in both studies revealed that children's emotional insecurity in the interparental relationship mediated associations between destructive interparental conflict and children's psychological problems even after including constructive conflict and family and child covariates as predictors. Conversely, emotional insecurity was not a mediator of associations between constructive interparental conflict and children's psychological problems when destructive interparental conflict was specified as a risk factor in the analyses. The results are consistent with the evolutionary reformulation of emotional security theory and the resulting primacy ascribed to destructive interparental conflict in accounting for individual differences in children's emotional insecurity and its pathogenic implications (Davies & Sturge-Apple, 2007).     

Interparental conflict and children's school adjustment: the explanatory role of children's internal representations of interparental and parent-child relationships

This study examined how children's insecure internal representations of interparental and parent-child relationships served as explanatory mechanisms in multiple pathways linking interparental conflict and parent emotional unavailability with the emotional and classroom engagement difficulties the children had in their adjustment to school. With their parents, 229 kindergarten children (127 girls and 102 boys, mean age = 6.0 years, SD = .50, at Wave 1) participated in this multimethod, 3-year longitudinal investigation. Findings revealed that children's insecure representations of the interparental relationship were a significant intervening mechanism in associations between observational ratings of interparental conflict and child and teacher reports on children's emotional and classroom difficulties in school over a 2-year period. Moreover, increased parental emotional unavailability accompanying high levels of interparental conflict was associated with children's insecure representations of the parent-child relationship and children's difficulties in classroom engagement at school entry. The findings highlight the importance of understanding the intrinsic processes that contribute to difficulties with stage-salient tasks for children who are experiencing interparental discord.     

Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children's cortisol functioning in family contexts

Our goal in the present study was to examine the specificity of pathways among interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability, and children's cortisol reactivity to emotional stressors within interparental and parent-child relationships. The study also tested whether detrimental family contexts were associated, on average, with hypocortisolism or hypercortisolism responses to stressful family interactions in young children. Participants included 201 toddlers and their mothers who were from impoverished backgrounds and who experienced disproportionate levels of family violence. Assessments of interparental violence were derived from maternal surveys and interviews, whereas maternal emotional unavailability was assessed through maternal reports and observer ratings of caregiving. Salivary cortisol levels were sampled at 3 time points before and after laboratory paradigms designed to elicit children's reactivity to stressful interparental and parent-child contexts. Results indicated that interparental violence and the mother's emotional unavailability were differentially associated with children's adrenocorticol stress reactivity. Furthermore, these family risk contexts predicted lower cortisol change in response to distress. The results are interpreted in the context of risky family and emotional security theory conceptualizations that underscore how family contexts differentially impact children's physiological regulatory capacities.     

A Longitudinal Study of Interparental Conflict, Emotional and Behavioral Reactivity, and Preschoolers' Adjustment Problems among Low-Income Families

Researchers have begun to develop models that explain the processes by which interparental conflict impacts children's adjustment. The present study tested a model based on emotional security theory. The longitudinal relations among interparental conflict, boys' reactions to conflict, and internalizing and externalizing problems were examined in a sample of 129 mother–son dyads from low-income, 2-parent families from the time sons were age 2 to 5. Results indicated that children exposed to interparental conflict were more likely to have concurrent and later behavior problems and that patterns of interparental conflict across time made unique contributions in predicting later problems. Children's emotional reactivity in response to conflict had no direct relation to interparental conflict and only modest relations to behavior problems. However, interparental conflict and reactivity factors interacted to predict behavior problems at ages 3 1/2 and 5. Thus, some support was demonstrated for emotional reactivity as a moderator in the development of young children's behavior problems.     

Bullying: the consequences of interparental discord and child's self-concept

The objective of this research is to explore how the relationship between interparental discord and child's self-concept shapes participation in bullying behavior by elementary and middle-school children. The main finding is that child's self-concept mediates the effects of interparental discord on bullying behavior. Further, the results of the study support a symbolic interactionist view of child self-development, in which children internalize the environment provided by parents. This internalization gives way to self-concept, which guides behavior. This study adds to the growing body of literature that seeks to understand whether and how characteristics of children mediate the effects of parental attributes on behavioral outcomes. The proposed implications for the prevention of bullying include building children's self-concept, intervening in parental conflict, and involving the entire family system in the intervention process.     

父母冲突与青少年自伤的关系:一个有调节的中介模型

以情绪安全感理论为依据考察父母冲突与青少年自伤的关系,并在此基础上提出一个有调节的中介模型,探讨情绪不安全感的中介作用以及情绪调节自我效能感的调节作用。采用整群抽样法对2800名中学生进行问卷调查,结果表明:(1)在所有青少年被试中有自伤行为的比例占41.49%,青少年的自伤水平在年级、学校类型和是否为独生子女这些人口学变量上有显著差异;(2)父母冲突能显著地正向预测青少年的自伤水平,情绪不安全感在两者之间起部分中介作用;(3)控制消极情绪自我效能感对情绪不安全感的中介作用有显著的负向调节作用,只有当控制消极情绪自我效能感很低时,情绪不安全感在父母冲突和青少年自伤水平的中介作用才是显著的。     

Predictors of Emotional Security in Survivors of Interpersonal Violence

As emotional security theory has recently been extended to understand recovery from interpersonal violence, the present study aimed to understand whether and to what extent trauma-specific aspects of the family environment (caregiver responses to disclosure, non-disclosure) and more general aspects of the family environment (interparental conflict, parental invalidation of emotions) explained variance in emotional security in the family in a sample of emerging adults with a history of interpersonal violence (physical or sexual abuse or assault). Results indicated that substantiated aspects of the interparental subsystem (interparental conflict) and parent–child subsystem (parental invalidation of emotions) predicted all three aspects of emotional security (preoccupation, disengagement, and security) in regression models where trauma-specific variables were included. Additionally, non-supportive caregiver response to disclosed trauma also accounted for significant variance in felt security, supporting the idea that problematic caregiver responses to traumatic events can erode emotional security for survivors of interpersonal violence, in addition to broader patterns in the interparental and parent–child subsystems.     

Longitudinal associations between parents' hostility and siblings' externalizing behavior in the context of marital discord.

This study examined longitudinal associations between parents' hostility and siblings' externalizing behavior in the context of interparental discord. The sample included 116 families (mothers, fathers, 2 siblings) assessed in middle childhood, when siblings were, on average, 8 and 10 years old, and in adolescence, at average ages of 14 and 16 years. Parents reported on their hostility toward each child and on each child's externalizing problems. Raters observed interparental hostility, and parents rated their marital quality. Results indicated both within-family and between-families effects. Specifically, the child who received more parental hostility than his or her sibling showed greater increases in externalizing problems than his or her sibling; this association was moderated by marital discord. In addition, the child who exhibited more behavioral problems than his or her sibling received greater increases in hostile mothering than did his or her sibling. Between-families effects were evident, in that children's externalizing problems were associated with increases in mothers' hostility toward both children in the family. Results support transactional models of development and family systems theory.     

Parental Dysphoria and Children’s Adjustment: Marital Conflict Styles,Children’s Emotional Security,and Parenting as Mediators of Risk

Dimensions of martial conflict, children's emotional security regarding interparental conflict, and parenting style were examined as mediators between parental dysphoria and child adjustment. A community sample of 262 children, ages 8–16, participated with their parents. Behavioral observations were made of parents’ interactions during marital conflict resolution tasks, which children later observed to assess their emotional security. Questionnaires assessed parents’ dysphoria, parenting, and children's adjustment. Structural equation modeling indicated that parental dysphoria was linked with child adjustment through specific and distinct mediating family processes, including marital conflict and parenting. Children's emotional security in the context of particular marital conflict styles also mediated relations between parental dysphoria and child adjustment problems, with similar pathways found for mothers and fathers. These pathways remained significant even after significant parenting contributions were considered.     

父母冲突对青少年社交焦虑的影响：序列中介效应分析

采用父母冲突儿童知觉量表(CPIC)、父母关系安全感量表(SIS Scale)和社交焦虑分量表调查480名高中生,运用偏差矫正的百分位Bootstrap方法探索青少年对父母冲突的威胁知觉和情绪不安全感在父母冲突水平与青少年社交焦虑之间的序列中介作用。本研究同时检验认知情境理论和情绪安全感理论,发现青少年对父母冲突的威胁知觉对其情绪不安全感的不同维度存在不同影响,从而更为完善地揭示父母冲突影响青少年社交焦虑的内部机制。具体来说,父母冲突主要通过三条途径影响青少年社交焦虑:通过威胁知觉的中介作用;通过情绪不安全感,特别是消极表征的中介作用;通过依次影响威胁知觉和情绪不安全感(特别是消极表征和情绪失调)而正向预测青少年社交焦虑。     

Marital discord and child behavior problems in a nonclinic sample

Mothers' evaluations of their marital relationship and of their children's behavior at home and teachers' ratings of the children's behavior in school were obtained using well-established measures. While an association was found between ratings of marital discord and children's problematic behavior, the relation was a fairly weak one. The present findings are discussed in comparison to the results of other research that has relied upon clinic samples and nonindependent ratings in examining the relation between marital and child problems. In general, it appears that different methodological procedures lead to quite different conclusions about the strength of the association between interparental conflict and child behavior problems.This work was supported in part by a grant from the Sigma Xi Scientific Society.     

The Linkage Between Multiple Perspectives of the Marital Relationship and Preschoolers' Adjustment

We examined how children's, parents', and observers' perceptions of the marital relationship are linked with children's adjustment. Children's perceptions of the marital relationship were assessed using a new measure, the Interparental Relationship Interview for Children (IRIC). In the first phase of the study, 63 preschoolers, 63 mothers, and 56 fathers completed questionnaires assessing the interparental relationship. Teachers assessed the children's adjustment. In the second phase, 39 of the couples enacted a typical conflictual marital interaction. Findings established the reliability and validity of the IRIC and revealed that the IRIC uniquely contributes to the prediction of children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Taken together, the different perspectives of the marital relationship explained 36% of the variance in children's externalizing behavior problems. These results suggest the promise of the IRIC and demonstrate the unique contribution of the young child's perspective.     

Prospective effects of interparental conflict on child attachment security and the moderating role of parents' romantic attachment.

This study investigated the impact of parents' observed conflict behavior on subsequent child attachment security, both as a main effect and as moderated by parents' romantic attachment. Participants were 80 heterosexual couples involving men from the Oregon Youth Study and their first-born children. The authors used hierarchical linear modeling to predict child security with each parent. Interparental psychological aggression predicted lower child security with father, regardless of romantic attachment. If the father was insecure, interparental positive engagement predicted lower child security with him. If either the mother or father was avoidant, interparental withdrawal did not predict lower child security, though it did for more secure parents. Results are discussed in terms of implications of attachment-(in)congruent behavior for parents' emotional availability.     

Interparental conflict and adolescent emotional security across family structures

This study investigated whether interparental conflict was differentially related to forms of emotional security (i.e., family, interparental, parent–child) and whether forms of emotional security were differentially associated with mental health problems for adolescents in married versus divorced/separated families. Participants were 1032 adolescents (ages 10–15; 51% male, 49% female; 82% non-Hispanic White, 9% Black/African American, 5% Hispanic, 2% Asian or Pacific Islander, 2% Native American) recruited from a public school in a middle-class suburb of a United States metropolitan area. We used multiple group multivariate path analysis to assess (1) associations between interparental conflict and multiple measures of emotional insecurity (i.e., family, interparental, and parent–child), (2) associations between measures of emotional insecurity and internalizing and externalizing problems, and (3) moderation effects of parent–child relationships. The patterns of association were similar across family structures. A high-quality parent–child relationship did not mitigate the harmful effects of interparental conflict on emotional insecurity or mental health problems. Findings suggest that regardless of family structure, emotional security across multiple family systems may be a critical target for intervention to prevent youth mental health problems, in addition to interventions that reduce conflict and improve parent–child relationships.     

Young Children's Responding to Interparental Conflict: Associations with Marital Aggression and Child Adjustment

We designed this study to examine children's self-reported and observed emotional and behavioral responding to marital conflict as a potential mechanism linking marital physical aggression (as reported by the parents) and children's behavioral adjustment (as reported by their preschool teachers). In a sample of 48 preschoolers, parental marital physical aggression was positively associated with children's observed dysregulated responding to interparental conflict and negatively associated with children's self-reported behavioral disruption. Marital aggression and children's self-reported responding to marital conflict predicted teacher-reported behavior problems, with both variables adding unique variance. Our findings suggested a potential pathway linking exposure to marital conflict, children's regulatory strategies, and children's behavioral adjustment outside the home.     

Interparental conflict, negative parenting, and children's adjustment: bridging links between parents' depression and children's psychological distress

Pathways linking parental depressive symptoms, adult relationship insecurity, interparental conflict, negative parenting, and children's psychological adjustment (internalizing symptoms and externalizing problems) were assessed using a 3-wave longitudinal research design. Two-parent families (N = 352) with 11- to 13-year-old children (179 boys, 173 girls) participated in the study. Maternal and paternal depressive symptoms were associated with insecurity in adult close relationships assessed 12 months later, which was concurrently related to heightened levels of interparental conflict. Controlling for children's initial symptom levels, interparental conflict was related to child appraisals of father and mother rejection assessed an additional 12 months later, which were related to children's internalizing symptoms and externalizing problems, respectively. Results are discussed with regard to the implications for understanding the complex interplay between adult depressive symptoms, attributions in close adult relationships, interparental conflict, negative parenting, and children's psychological adjustment.     

Conceptual links between Byng-Hall's theory of parentification and the emotional security hypothesis

Guided by our emotional security hypothesis, this commentary expands on Byng-Hall's article by addressing the role interparental difficulties play in the development of parentification. The implications that recent methodological advances have for empirically testing family models of insecurity are discussed.     

Families with Distinct Levels of Marital Conflict and Child Adjustment: Which Role for Maternal and Paternal Stress?

This study addresses the links between distinct levels of marital conflict and mothers’ and fathers’ parenting stress and their associations with children’s adjustment. Using a sample of 358 Italian father–mother dyads with school–aged children, we computed a cluster analysis to identify distinct groups of families with different levels of interparental conflict. In each of the three groups identified (low, moderate, and high marital conflict), we conducted correlational and mediational analyses to explore the relationship between interparental conflict and children’s adjustment, the relationship between interparental conflict and maternal and paternal stress, and the potential mediating role of these components of maternal and paternal stress in the association between interparental conflict and children’s adjustment. We administered the R-CTS, PSI-SF, and CBCL to parents in order to assess marital conflict, maternal and paternal stress, and children’s behavioral problems; children completed the CPIC in order to evaluate their perceptions of interparental conflict. Results show that, in the high marital conflict group, levels of interparental conflict negatively affect children’s adjustment; moreover, the parent–child dysfunctional interaction component of maternal stress partially mediates the relationship between interparental discord and children’s internalizing behaviors, while the difficult child component of paternal stress fully mediates the effects of marital conflict on externalizing behaviors. In the moderate marital conflict group, levels of interparental conflict are correlated with the difficult child component of both maternal and paternal stress, while in the low marital conflict group, interparental conflict does not correlate with both maternal and paternal stress and children’s adjustment.     

学前儿童迷走神经活动与情绪反应、情绪调节及冲动性的关系

Porges的多迷走神经理论提出迷走神经活动(vagal activity)与儿童的情绪及社会行为密切联系,已有研究探讨了儿童迷走神经活动与儿童的情绪反应及调节的关系,但研究结论不够清晰,需要进一步研究澄清。本研究选取93名4-6岁学前儿童被试,运用生理测量手段与呼吸性窦性心律不齐(respiratory sinus arrhythmia,RSA)分析的方法,采用父母报告的学前儿童情绪反应强度、情绪调节能力、冲动性为结果变量,进一步探讨儿童迷走神经活动(以基线RSA、RSA撤出、RSA恢复为指标)与情绪反应、情绪调节及冲动性的关系。研究发现:(1)基线RSA与儿童情绪反应强度显著负相关,与儿童情绪调节能力显著正相关,基线RSA是儿童情绪反应强度显著负向预测因子,是儿童情绪调节能力的显著正向预测因子;(2)RSA撤出、RSA恢复性与儿童冲动性显著负相关,是儿童冲动性显著负向预测因子。研究结果支持了Porges的多迷走神经理论,表明迷走神经活动与儿童情绪反应、情绪调节及冲动性密切联系。