1996-2004年中国大陆儒学研究的新进展

1996-2004年,中国大陆的孔子、儒学研究持续繁荣发展,在以下八个方面上,取得了新的进展: (1)儒学与世界和平; ( 2 )儒家人文精神; ( 3 )简帛儒家文献; ( 4 )儒学宗教性问题; (5)儒学与生态伦理; (6)儒学与普世伦理; (7)儒学与文化保守主义; (8)儒学与自由主义; (9)儒学与民主、人权; (10)儒学与全球化。     

Interaction of irrational beliefs with goal pursuit

152 subjects reported affective and cognitive reactions at several stages of pursuing a hypothetical goal related to the taking of a classroom test, then gave Anxious Overconcern and High Self-expectations ratings from Jones' Irrational Belief Test. Subject groups differed in kinds of goals set; e.g., easy vs. difficult. Affective and attributional correlates of the irrational beliefs appeared maladaptive, but differed as a function of difficulty and phase of pursuit of the hypothetical goal. These results supported a contextual model in which irrational beliefs are general cognitive structures which interact with other internal and/or external factors to influence reactions in particular situations. Motivational variables-such as type of goal pursued and number of steps taken in pursuit of it-appear to be important among such factors. The study thus points to growing complexity in our knowledge of how B functions in the ABC paradigm.Frank W. Wicker is Professor of Educational Psychology in the Department of Educational Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin. His research interests are focused on the cognitive bases of motivation and emotion.Gail Brown is a graduate student in the program in Cognition, Learning, and Instruction in the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Texas at Austin. Her primary research interests relate to theoretical explorations of motivation and emotion.Anastasia S. Hagen is a graduate student in the program in Cognition, Learning, and Instruction. She is especially interested in motivation as it pertains to learning and instruction.Wayne Boring is a graduate student in the program in Cognition, Learning, and Instruction. He is interested in cognitive approaches to the understanding of animal behaviors.James A. Wiehe is also a graduate student in the program in Cognition, Learning, and Instruction. He combines interests in cognitive, motivation, and the psychology of music.     

GENDER BIASES IN TEXTBOOKS FOR INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Because of spreading concerns about gender stereotypes in textbooks, in 1975 an American Psychological Association Task Force recommended changes in the type of language that should be used to report research findings and in the type of information that should be included in reports of psychological research. These recommendations also applied to the presentation of psychological information in textbooks. Studies in the subsequent 7 years indicated some decrease in the use of sex-stereotyped language and some decrease in gender-biased content. Researchers typically concluded, however, that although some improvements had occurred, gender biases and stereotypes still occurred in texts. The present study reports an extensive content analysis of current textbooks for introductory psychology and human development courses. Representation of the work, theory, and behavior of males continues to significantly exceed the representation of the work, theory, and behavior of females, and females continue to be portrayed in negative and gender-biased ways.     

Sexual self-disclosure in Cyberspace among Taiwanese adolescents: gender differences and the interplay of Cyberspace and real life.

This study explored adolescents' sexual self-disclosure in real life and cyberspace, as well as gender differences of sexual self-disclosure in cyberspace. There were 115 male and 92 female adolescents who participated in this pretest and posttest survey. In general, the depth of sexual self-disclosure in real life was greater than in cyberspace, but the breadth of sexual selfdisclosure in both real life and cyberspace was equivalent. The cross-lagged panel analysis indicated that adolescents who were willing to self-disclose sexual topics in real life also selfdisclosed them more in cyberspace, and vice versa. Furthermore, sexual self-disclosure in both disclosing environments was mutually predicted by each other. The findings also indicated that cyberspace might not be a substitute channel of compensatory gratification for sexual self-disclosure in real life. As for gender differences, the breadth and depth of sexual self-disclosure in male adolescents were greater than in female adolescents, in both real life and cyberspace. Male adolescents tend to be more active in Internet sexuality than females. However, female adolescents' sexual emancipation in cyberspace is not evident in Taiwan. Possible reasons, implications, and limitations of the findings are discussed.     

Visual category-selectivity for faces, places and objects emerges along different developmental trajectories

The organization of category-selective regions in ventral visual cortex is well characterized in human adults. We investigated a crucial, previously unaddressed, question about how this organization emerges developmentally. We contrasted the developmental trajectories for face-, object-, and place-selective activation in the ventral visual cortex in children, adolescents, and adults. Although children demonstrated adult-like organization in object- and place-related cortex, as a group they failed to show consistent face-selective activation in classical face regions. The lack of a consistent neural signature for faces was attributable to (1) reduced face-selectivity and extent of activation within the regions that will become the FFA, OFA, and STS in adults, and (2) smaller volumes and considerable variability in the locus of face-selective activation in individual children. In contrast, adolescents showed an adult-like pattern of face-selective activation, although it was more right-lateralized. These findings reveal critical age-related differences in the emergence of category-specific functional organization in the visual cortex and support a model of brain development in which specialization emerges from interactions between experience-dependent learning and the maturing brain.     

Antecedents of Trust among Citizens and Non-citizens in Qatar

Utilizing new survey data on social capital, we examine the determinants and locus of generalized trust among citizens and immigrants in Qatar, a small, heterogeneous, wealthy, and non-democratic country in which immigrants far outnumber citizens. Scholars of social capital have explored the development of generalized trust in many countries. Most of this attention has focused on the Western world, and little is known about how trust forms in other contexts. Our findings show that important insights resulting from research in developed democracies apply and have explanatory power in some of the very different environments present in Qatar, that these insights do not apply and have explanatory power in some of the other environments present in Qatar, that circumstances and experiences that characterize this array of environments can be identified and described in terms of variable attributes, and that linkages can be established between these attributes and particular antecedents of generalized trust.     

Rapid forgetting of social transmission of food preferences in aged rats: relationship to hippocampal CREB activation

A major characteristic of age-related changes in memory in rodents is an increase in the rate of forgetting of new information, even when tests given soon after training reveal intact memory. Interference with CREB functions similarly results in rapid decay of memory. Using quantitative immunocytochemistry, the present experiment examined the number of CREB- and pCREB-immunoreactive neurons in three regions of the dorsal and ventral hippocampus (dentate gyrus, CA3, and CA1) as a function of age and training. Rats were trained in a social transmission of food preference task. Using different food pairings, memory was tested in each rat immediately and 1, 2, 3, and 7 d later. Both young and old rats had intact and comparable memory scores at the immediate and 24-h tests, but old rats exhibited more rapid forgetting thereafter relative to that of young rats. The main findings were that training resulted in large increases in the number of pCREB-immunoreactive cells throughout the hippocampus in both young and aged rats. However, particularly in the ventral hippocampus, the training-elicited increase in pCREB-positive neurons was significantly lower in old than in young rats. Based on Western blot analyses in a separate set of rats, CREB levels were not responsive to training but were lower in the ventral hippocampus of old rats than of young rats. The present findings suggest that lower activation of CREB after training may contribute to the rapid forgetting seen in aged rats.     

Ontogeny of sex differences in defensive burying behavior in rats: effect of social isolation

The aim of the present experiments was to clarify sex differences in socio-developmental factors that affected defense behavior in rats. Sex differences in the defensive burying behavior of rats, and related social factors, were explored in three developmental stages: juvenile, puberty, and adult; 30, 50, and 80 days of age, respectively. The duration of burying, digging into bedding material, stretch-attend postures, and crouch/freezing were measured in a shock-prod test. For males, the duration of burying was longer in the juvenile and pubertal stages than in adulthood. For females, no age differences in the duration of burying were found. Males showed longer burying durations than females in both the juvenile and pubertal stages. For both sexes, the highest duration of digging was found in the juvenile stage, and females showed longer durations of digging than males. Both male and female rats isolated during the juvenile stage, from 26 to 40 days of age, showed smaller durations of burying behavior compared to pair-reared rats. This effect of juvenile isolation was maintained among both adult males and females even when they were returned to pair rearing after isolation. Isolation during adulthood, from 66 to 80 days of age, increased burying behavior in males, but decreased it in females. The durations of digging, stretch-attend postures, and crouch/freezing were not affected by isolation. The decrease in defensive burying and its increase resulting from isolation in adult male rats, suggest that the emergence of adult-like social relationships in males suppressed the duration of burying. Male and female rats isolated during the juvenile stage maintained lower levels of burying, suggesting that social experience as juveniles is important for the emergence of defensive burying behavior.     

Self-other representations and relational and overt aggression in adolescent girls and boys

Aggressive behavior in girls has received far less attention than similar problems in boys. This study examined self-representation, and others' representation of self, as predictors of relational aggression, overt aggression, and assaultive behavior in 32 girls and 52 boys, 10 to 17 years of age, referred for assessment due to significant aggressive and delinquent behavior problems. As predicted, negativity of self-representation predicted relational aggression in girls but not boys. Negativity of self-representation also predicted overt aggression and assaultive behavior in both girls and boys. Parental representations of self were not predictive in this sample; however, negativity of peer representations of self, was associated with increased relational aggression in girls and decreased relational aggression in boys. Negativity of peer representations of self also predicted overt aggression and assaultive behavior in both girls and boys. Results suggest that the evaluation of self-other representations may be valuable in the assessment of risk for gender specific patterns of aggression.     

Relation of career adaptability to meaning in life and connectedness among adolescents in Hong Kong

This study examined relationships among career adaptability, meaning in life, and connectedness in Hong Kong with Chinese male and female Grade 9 students (n = 543). The results indicated that presence of meaning in life positively predicted connectedness; and in the males career concern was predicted by presence of meaning in life. Also in males, career control was predicted both by presence and search for meaning in life, while career curiosity was predicted by connectedness to school, and by presence and search for meaning in life. Career confidence was predicted by connectedness to school, and presence and search of meaning in life. In the females, career concern was predicted by presence of meaning in life and connectedness to school, but negatively by connectedness to peers. Career control and career curiosity were predicted by presence and search for meaning in life. Career confidence was predicted by presence of meaning in life. Limitations of the study are identified; and implications for future research and guidance with Chinese adolescents in schools are discussed.     

Translational Rodent Models of Korsakoff Syndrome Reveal the Critical Neuroanatomical Substrates of Memory Dysfunction and Recovery

Investigation of the amnesic disorder Korsakoff Syndrome (KS) has been vital in elucidating the critical brain regions involved in learning and memory. Although the thalamus and mammillary bodies are the primary sites of neuropathology in KS, functional deactivation of the hippocampus and certain cortical regions also contributes to the chronic cognitive dysfunction reported in KS. The rodent pyrithiamine-induced thiamine deficiency (PTD) model has been used to study the extent of hippocampal and cortical neuroadaptations in KS. In the PTD model, the hippocampus, frontal and retrosplenial cortical regions display loss of cholinergic innervation, decreases in behaviorally stimulated acetylcholine release and reductions in neurotrophins. While PTD treatment results in significant impairment in measures of spatial learning and memory, other cognitive processes are left intact and may be recruited to improve cognitive outcome. In addition, behavioral recovery can be stimulated in the PTD model by increasing acetylcholine levels in the medial septum, hippocampus and frontal cortex, but not in the retrosplenial cortex. These data indicate that although the hippocampus and frontal cortex are involved in the pathogenesis of KS, these regions retain neuroplasticity and may be critical targets for improving cognitive outcome in KS.     

Non-suicidal self-injury and identity distress in Flemish adolescents: Exploring gender differences and mediational pathways

There is an increasing amount of research that examines non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in relation to identity formation in adolescents. However, little or no research to date has explored associations between NSSI and identity distress in specific domains. To address this shortcoming, we assessed NSSI, identity distress, anxiety, and depression using self-report questionnaires in 568 high school students. Gender differences in NSSI were found with lifetime prevalence of NSSI being twice as high in females as compared to males. Gender differences in terms of identity domains were also significant; adolescent females showed higher levels of distress in the identity domains of career goals, friendship, and group loyalties as compared to males. Adolescents engaging in NSSI showed higher distress in domains of long-term goals, friendship, sexual orientation and behavior, values and beliefs. Results indicated that it was not distress in specific domains as such but the impairment due to daily impact of identity distress that explained additional variance in lifetime prevalence of NSSI above and beyond gender, age, depression, and anxiety. We also demonstrated that gender differences in lifetime prevalence of NSSI were mediated by differences in such identity impairment. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

The state of psychology in China at the present time is discussed in the context of trends, continuities, and discontinuities in development of the discipline over the last 60 years. The work of psychologists was severely disrupted between 1966 and 1976 by the activities of the ‘gang of four’. Although there is in effect a lost generation of psychologists, teaching and research have been vigorously re-established in the colleges and universities. In the Institute of Psychology, which forms part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 90 psychologists are carrying out research primarily in developmental psychology, perception, physiological and pathological psychology, and psychological theories and systems. The Chinese Psychological. Society resumed activities in 1977, and Acta Psychologica Sinica reappeared in 1979 with a circulation of 10,000 copies. Psychology in China is international in its perspective, and Chinese psychologists have welcomed many recent opportunities to establish contacts with colleagues in other countries.     

Extinction-induced "despair" in aged and adult rats: links to neurotrophins in frontal cortex and hippocampus

In the search for animal models of human geriatric depression, we found that operant extinction of escape from water results in the expression of immobility in different age groups, indicative of behavioral "despair", which was also associated with the resistance-to-extinction (RTE) expressed by these animals. With respect to the neurotrophin hypothesis of depression, nerve-growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) protein levels in frontal cortex (FC) and hippocampus (HP) were examined and related to behavioral immobility and RTE in the water maze in aged and adult Wistar rats. Age-related increases in levels of NGF were found in HP and of NT-3 in FC. Indices of immobility showed relationships in the aged with NGF and, in adults, with BDNF, pointing to a dissociation of neurotrophic involvement in extinction trial-induced "despair" in aged and adult rats. The present results support the hypothesis, that extinction-induced immobility in the water maze reflects a state akin to behavioral despair and point to age-related differences of neurotrophic involvement in depressive-like symptoms. The concept of extinction-induced behavioral "despair" in the aged subsumes several aspects of human geriatric depression, such as co-morbidity of learning impairment and anxiety, and, thus could represent a useful paradigm to examine the neuronal mechanisms underlying depression, especially in aged rodents.     

Pavlov in Spain

Reflexology has been present throughout Spanish science since the last third of the nineteenth century and its importance can be seen in the works of authors such as Martín Salazar, Ramón y Cajal, Gómez Oca?a, Simarro and Turró. The most important research in Reflexology in Spain takes place a) at the Schools of Neurophysiology and Psychology in Barcelona and Madrid, b) with a group of authors specializing in pathological medicine and c) in the Military's Health Department, Pavlov's work was received in Spain with special interest. Fernández-Espa?a, who could be considered the "first Spanish Pavlovian," emphasized Pavlov's work in a series dedicated to the study of objective psychology which was published between 1914 and 1924. Planelles was the first investigator to develop a program in pavlovian experimentation, presenting his results in 1935. The Civil War (1936-1939) ended these and many other Spanish projects in psychology. After the war, interest in Reflexology and Pavlov's theories slowly rose again, first through psychosomatic medicine and then in the 60's because of the works of such authors as Monserrat-Esteve, Rof Carballo and Colodrón. The progressive inclusion of psychology in the Schools of Philosophy and Arts after 1968 marked the beginning of a new era.     

Time-courses of Fos expression in rat hippocampus and neocortex following acquisition and recall of a socially transmitted food preference

The present study examined expression of the immediate-early gene, c-Fos, following acquisition, 48-h (recent) recall, and 1-week (remote) recall of a socially transmitted food preference (STFP) in multiple brain regions implicated in learning and memory. In comparisons with controls, trained Long-Evans rats had increased Fos immunoreactivity in the ventral hippocampus following acquisition and recent recall. In the parahippocampal cortices, Fos was increased in the lateral entorhinal cortex after acquisition. In the orbitofrontal cortex, increased Fos immunoreactivity was observed in the lateral orbital cortex following both recent and remote recall and in the ventral orbital cortex following remote recall, indicating a role for the orbitofrontal cortex in the remote recall of STFP memory. In contrast, in the medial prefrontal cortex, increased Fos-ir was found following acquisition in the prelimbic cortex and following recent recall in the prelimbic and infralimbic cortices. No differences in Fos expression were found between trained rats and controls in the dorsal hippocampus, posterior parietal cortex, or amygdala. The present findings support a time-limited role of the hippocampus in the acquisition and recall of STFP memory and implicate neocortical regions involved in STFP acquisition, recent, and remote recall.     

The Meanings and Manifestations of Religion and Spirituality among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Adults

The present study employed a mixed method approach in the effort to explore religious and spiritual practices among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals, as well as the meanings ascribed to the terms religiosity and spirituality by LGBT adults. Data were collected via a cross-sectional survey consisting of open- and close-ended items among 498 LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) identified individuals attending an annual Pride event in a large northeastern city. Both quantitative and qualitative findings suggested that consistent with other studies, spirituality was defined largely in relational terms (e.g., in terms of one’s relationship with God and with self). Religion, in contrast, was defined largely in terms of communal worship and in terms of its negative influences in the lives of individuals and communities. For this sample of LGBT persons, spiritual identities were more pronounced than religious ones, and this pattern may be explained by their understanding of the spiritual self in relation to prosocial engagement and interconnectedness with others, the world around them, and the universe. Further, religious affiliation and practices were explained, in part, by the religion in which the individual was raised, level of educational attainment, as well as the developmental stage in which the person is currently situated. The findings highlight the reality that a substantial number of LGBT individuals may remain committed to religious and spiritual life, which may be related to a motivation to make sense of one’s place in the world especially in light of societal misunderstandings and intolerance to LGBT individuals.     

The Structure of Creativity in Primary Education: An Empirical Confirmation of the Amusement Park Theory

In this study, we explored the structure of pupils’ creativity in primary education following the Amusement Park Theory, by investigating undiscovered linkages between the domains of writing, mathematics, and drawing. More specifically, we examined: (a) whether some domains and general thematic areas are more closely related to each other than to others, (b) whether literacy and mathematical ability are specific underlying traits of creativity in writing and mathematics, respectively, and (c) whether intelligence and divergent thinking are related to creativity in all domains. The sample consisted of 331 Dutch 4th grade pupils. For each research question, a model was analyzed using structural equation modeling. We found creativity in mathematics and creativity in writing to be most similar, followed by creativity in mathematics and creativity in drawing, with creativity in writing and creativity in drawing being least similar. Additionally, we found evidence for several underlying traits (i.e., literacy ability and mathematical ability) and initial requirements of creativity (i.e., intelligence and divergent thinking), none of which were important for creativity in only one domain, and of which only intelligence was important for creativity in all domains. Herewith, our study provides insights regarding the complexity of the structure of creativity in primary education.