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1.
Robert Audi 《International Journal for Philosophy of Religion》2008,63(1-3):87-102
Belief is a central focus of inquiry in the philosophy of religion and indeed in the field of religion itself. No one conception
of belief is central in all these cases, and sometimes the term ‘belief’ is used where ‘faith’ or ‘acceptance’ would better
express what is intended. This paper sketches the major concepts in the philosophy of religion that are expressed by these
three terms. In doing so, it distinguishes propositional belief (belief that) from both objectual belief (believing something to have a property) and, more importantly, belief in (a trusting attitude that is illustrated by at least many paradigm cases of belief in God). Faith is shown to have a similar
complexity, and even propositional faith divides into importantly different categories. Acceptance differs from both belief
and faith in that at least one kind of acceptance is behavioral in a way neither of the other two elements is. Acceptance
of a proposition, it is argued, does not entail believing it, nor does believing entail acceptance in any distinctive sense
of the latter term. In characterizing these three notions (and related ones), the paper provides some basic materials important
both for understanding a person’s religious position and for appraising its rationality. The nature of religious faith and
some of the conditions for its rationality, including some deriving from elements of an ethics of belief, are explored in
some detail. 相似文献
2.
Aaron Rizzieri 《Philosophical Studies》2011,153(2):235-242
Timothy Williamson has argued that a person S’s total evidence is constituted solely by propositions that S knows. This theory of evidence entails that a false belief can not be a part of S’s evidence base for a conclusion. I argue by counterexample that this thesis (E = K for now) forces an implausible separation
between what it means for a belief to be justified and rational from one’s perspective and what it means to base one’s beliefs
on the evidence. Furthermore, I argue that E = K entails the implausible result that there are cases in which a well-evidenced
belief necessarily can not serve as evidence for a further proposition. 相似文献
3.
John H. Whittaker 《International Journal for Philosophy of Religion》2008,63(1-3):103-129
As an illustration of what Phillips called the “heterogeneity of sense,” this essay concentrates on differences in what is
meant by a “reason for belief.” Sometimes saying that a belief is reasonable simply commends the belief’s unquestioned acceptance
as a part of what we understand as a sensible outlook. Here the standard picture of justifying truth claims on evidential
grounds breaks down; and it also breaks down in cases of fundamental moral and religious disagreement, where the basic beliefs
that we hold affect our conception of what counts as a reliable ground of judgment. Phillips accepts the resultant variations
in our conceptions of rational judgment as a part of logic, just as Wittgenstein did. All objective means of determining the truth or falsity of an assertion presume some underlying conceptual agreement about what counts
as good judgment. This means that the possibility of objective justification is limited. But no pernicious relativism results
from this view, for as Wittgenstein said, “After reason comes persuasion.” There is, moreover, a non-objective criterion of
sorts in the moral and religious requirement that one be able to live with one’s commitments. In such cases, good judgment
is still possible, but it differs markedly from the standard model of making rational inferences. 相似文献
4.
Andrés Perea 《Synthese》2007,158(2):251-271
Within a formal epistemic model for simultaneous-move games, we present the following conditions: (1) belief in the opponents’ rationality (BOR), stating that a player believes that every opponent chooses an optimal strategy, (2) self-referential beliefs (SRB), stating that a player believes that his opponents hold correct beliefs about his own beliefs, (3) projective beliefs (PB), stating that i believes that j’s belief about k’s choice is the same as i’s belief about k’s choice, and (4) conditionally independent beliefs (CIB), stating that a player believes that opponents’ types choose their strategies independently. We show that, if a player
satisfies BOR, SRB and CIB, and believes that every opponent satisfies BOR, SRB, PB and CIB, then he will choose a Nash strategy
(that is, a strategy that is optimal in some Nash equilibrium). We thus provide a sufficient collection of one-person conditions
for Nash strategy choice. We also show that none of these seven conditions can be dropped. 相似文献
5.
Steven L. Reynolds 《Erkenntnis》2011,75(1):19-35
Control of our own beliefs is allegedly required for the truth of epistemic evaluations, such as “S ought to believe that p”, or “S ought to suspend judgment (and so refrain from any belief) whether p”. However, we cannot usually believe or refrain from believing at will. I agree with a number of recent authors in thinking
that this apparent conflict is to be resolved by distinguishing reasons for believing that give evidence that p from reasons
that make it desirable to believe that p whether or not p is true. I argue however that there is a different problem, one that becomes clearer in light of this solution to the first
problem. Someone’s approval of our beliefs is at least often a non-evidential reason to believe, and as such cannot change
our beliefs. Ought judgments aim to change the world. But ‘ought to believe’ judgments can’t do that by changing the belief,
if they don’t give evidence. So I argue that we should instead regard epistemic ought judgments as aimed mainly at influencing
assertions that express the belief and other actions based on the belief, in accord with recent philosophical claims that
we have epistemic norms for assertion and action. 相似文献
6.
We formalise a notion of dynamic rationality in terms of a logic of conditional beliefs on (doxastic) plausibility models.
Similarly to other epistemic statements (e.g. negations of Moore sentences and of Muddy Children announcements), dynamic rationality
changes its meaning after every act of learning, and it may become true after players learn it is false. Applying this to
extensive games, we “simulate” the play of a game as a succession of dynamic updates of the original plausibility model: the
epistemic situation when a given node is reached can be thought of as the result of a joint act of learning (via public announcements)
that the node is reached. We then use the notion of “stable belief”, i.e. belief that is preserved during the play of the
game, in order to give an epistemic condition for backward induction: rationality and common knowledge of stable belief in
rationality. This condition is weaker than Aumann’s and compatible with the implicit assumptions (the “epistemic openness
of the future”) underlying Stalnaker’s criticism of Aumann’s proof. The “dynamic” nature of our concept of rationality explains
why our condition avoids the apparent circularity of the “backward induction paradox”: it is consistent to (continue to) believe
in a player’s rationality after updating with his irrationality. 相似文献
7.
We model three examples of beliefs that agents may have about other agents’ beliefs, and provide motivation for this conceptualization
from the theory of mind literature. We assume a modal logical framework for modelling degrees of belief by partially ordered
preference relations. In this setting, we describe that agents believe that other agents do not distinguish among their beliefs
(‘no preferences’), that agents believe that the beliefs of other agents are in part as their own (‘my preferences’), and
the special case that agents believe that the beliefs of other agents are exactly as their own (‘preference refinement’).
This multi-agent belief interaction is frame characterizable. We provide examples for introspective agents. We investigate
which of these forms of belief interaction are preserved under three common forms of belief revision. 相似文献
8.
In at least some cases of justified perceptual belief, our perceptual experience itself, as opposed to beliefs about it,
evidences and thereby justifies our belief. While the phenomenon is common, it is also mysterious. There are good reasons
to think that perceptions cannot justify beliefs directly, and there is a significant challenge in explaining how they do.
After explaining just how direct perceptual justification is mysterious, I
considerMichael Huemer’s (Skepticism and the Veil of Perception, 2001) and Bill Brewer’s (Perception and Reason, 1999) recent, but radically different, attempts to eliminate it. I argue that both are unsuccessful, though a consideration
of their mistakes deepens our appreciation of the mystery. 相似文献
9.
E. J. Coffman 《Synthese》2008,162(2):173-194
This paper advances the debate over the question whether false beliefs may nevertheless have warrant, the property that yields knowledge when conjoined with true belief. The paper’s first main part—which spans Sections 2–4—assesses
the best argument for Warrant Infallibilism, the view that only true beliefs can have warrant. I show that this argument’s key premise conflicts with an extremely plausible claim about warrant.
Sections 5–6 constitute the paper’s second main part. Section 5 presents an overlooked puzzle about warrant, and uses that
puzzle to generate a new argument for Warrant Fallibilism, the view that false beliefs can have warrant. Section 6 evaluates this pro-Fallibilism argument, finding ultimately that it defeats itself in
a surprising way. I conclude that neither Infallibilism nor Fallibilism should now constrain theorizing about warrant. 相似文献
10.
In previous research (Baeyens, Vansteenwegen et al., 1996) we demonstrated that when observers consume a series of CS+ and CS−flavored drinks while simultaneously watching
a videotaped model who synchronically drinks identical drinks and facially expresses his evaluation (dislike to CS+, neutral
to CS−) of the liquids, the observers acquire a dislike for CS+ flavored relative to CS−flavored drinks. The aim of the present
experiments was to test some predictions derived from a “direct conditioning” theory of such observational flavor learning.
Using the same observational flavor conditioning procedure, we investigated (Exp. 1) the effect of manipulating the observers’
belief concerning the relationship between the drinks that they and the model were consuming (same/different/no information).
Observational flavor conditioning was obtained when observers were led to believe that they were drinking the same drinks
as the model did, and when they were not informed about this relationship, but not when told to be drinking different drinks.
At the same time, however, the observers were not able to correctly identify the source of the model’s expression of dislike:
They showed no CS-US contingency-awareness. Whereas the former finding suggests the causal involvement of conscious beliefs
and cognitive inference processes in observational learning, the latter is more in line with the idea that the model’s facial
expressions may act like a US’ which is automatically associated with the paired flavor CS+, without any involvement of conscious
beliefs or cognitive inferences. These two crucial findings were replicated in Exp. 2. Also, we obtained evidence in this
study that the belief manipulation affected learning through its influence on the observers’ attention for the model’s facial
evaluative expressions. These results can be integrated either by a cognitive theory allowing the beliefs on which the inferences
are based to be of an implicit nature, or by a “direct conditioning” theory that conceives of the US’ as an interpreted event,
rather than as a mechanistically and invariantly acting physical entity. 相似文献
11.
Frank Baeyens Paul Eelen Geert Crombez Jan De Houwer 《Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.)》2001,20(2):183-203
In previous research (Baeyens, Vansteenwegen et al., 1996) we demonstrated that when observers consume a series of CS+ and CS−flavored drinks while simultaneously watching
a videotaped model who synchronically drinks identical drinks and facially expresses his evaluation (dislike to CS+, neutral
to CS−) of the liquids, the observers acquire a dislike for CS+ flavored relative to CS−flavored drinks. The aim of the present
experiments was to test some predictions derived from a “direct conditioning” theory of such observational flavor learning.
Using the same observational flavor conditioning procedure, we investigated (Exp. 1) the effect of manipulating the observers’
belief concerning the relationship between the drinks that they and the model were consuming (same/different/no information).
Observational flavor conditioning was obtained when observers were led to believe that they were drinking the same drinks
as the model did, and when they were not informed about this relationship, but not when told to be drinking different drinks.
At the same time, however, the observers were not able to correctly identify the source of the model’s expression of dislike:
They showed no CS-US contingency-awareness. Whereas the former finding suggests the causal involvement of conscious beliefs
and cognitive inference processes in observational learning, the latter is more in line with the idea that the model’s facial
expressions may act like a US’ which is automatically associated with the paired flavor CS+, without any involvement of conscious
beliefs or cognitive inferences. These two crucial findings were replicated in Exp. 2. Also, we obtained evidence in this
study that the belief manipulation affected learning through its influence on the observers’ attention for the model’s facial
evaluative expressions. These results can be integrated either by a cognitive theory allowing the beliefs on which the inferences
are based to be of an implicit nature, or by a “direct conditioning” theory that conceives of the US’ as an interpreted event,
rather than as a mechanistically and invariantly acting physical entity. 相似文献
12.
What Are Degrees of Belief? 总被引:2,自引:1,他引:1
Probabilism is committed to two theses:
Correspondingly, a natural way to argue for probabilism is:
and then
Most of the action in the literature concerns stage ii). Assuming that stage i) has been adequately discharged, various authors
move on to stage ii) with varied and ingenious arguments. But an unsatisfactory response at stage i) clearly undermines any
gains that might be accrued at stage ii) as far as probabilism is concerned: if those things are not degrees of belief, then it is irrelevant to probabilism whether they should be probabilities or not.
In this paper we scrutinize the state of play regarding stage i). We critically examine several of the leading accounts of
degrees of belief: reducing them to corresponding betting behavior (de Finetti); measuring them by that behavior (Jeffrey);
and analyzing them in terms of preferences and their role in decision-making more generally (Ramsey, Lewis, Maher). We argue
that the accounts fail, and so they are unfit to subserve arguments for probabilism. We conclude more positively: ‘degree
of belief’ should be taken as a primitive concept that forms the basis of our best theory of rational belief and decision:
probabilism.
Special Issue Formal Epistemology I. Edited by
Branden Fitelson 相似文献
1) | Opinion comes in degrees—call them degrees of belief, or credences. |
2) | The degrees of belief of a rational agent obey the probability calculus. |
i) | to give an account of what degrees of belief are, |
ii) | to show that those things should be probabilities, on pain of irrationality. |
13.
14.
Richard Amesbury 《International Journal for Philosophy of Religion》2008,63(1-3):25-37
William Kingdon Clifford famously argued that “it is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient
evidence.” His ethics of belief can be construed as involving two distinct theses—a moral claim (that it is wrong to hold beliefs to which one is not entitled) and an epistemological claim (that entitlement is always a function of evidential support). Although I reject the (universality of the) epistemological claim, I argue that something deserving of the name ethics of belief can nevertheless be preserved. However, in the second half of the paper I argue that Clifford’s response to the problem of
unethical belief is insufficiently attentive to the role played by self-deception in the formation of unethical beliefs. By
contrasting the first-person perspective of a doxastic agent with the third-person perspective of an outside observer, I argue
that unethical belief is a symptom of deficiencies of character: fix these, and belief will fix itself. I suggest that the
moral intuitions implicit in our response to examples of unethical belief (like Clifford’s famous example of the ship owner)
can better be accounted for in terms of a non-evidentialist virtue ethics of belief-formation, and that such an account can
survive the rejection of strong versions of doxastic voluntarism.
相似文献Joseph Butler, “Upon Self-Deceit” (1726)
15.
Wendy C. Gamble Allison R. Ewing Mari S. Wilhlem 《Journal of child and family studies》2009,18(1):70-82
Investigators argue that it is essential to consider why parents select non-parental child care arrangements in studying the
effects of that care on a child’s development. Existing investigations explore family economic and demographic characteristics
as determinants of child care choice. The present investigation examined a wide array of parents’ beliefs about characteristics
of child care arrangements with the goal of determining if these could be reduced to coherent dimensions. The emergent belief
sets were examined in relation to maternal and child characteristics as potential correlates. Two hundred and twenty respondents
with children in non-parental care completed surveys. These individuals represent diverse ethnic and economic groups. Ratings
of the importance of characteristics were factor analyzed resulting in a six factor solution: Practical Concerns, Institutional Structure, Curriculum, Scheduling, Child Centered Orientation and School Readiness. The latter factor, or program components promoting social skills and classroom behaviors associated with succeeding in school,
was identified as the most important dimension. Parents describing their children as more difficult temperamentally and as
less developmentally advanced tended to describe school readiness and curriculum issues as less important. Child characteristics
accounted for unique variance above and beyond mothers’ characteristics in predicting to parental beliefs. Results suggest
that parents as consumers possess coherent belief sets and are sensitive to children’s developmental needs in evaluating care
arrangements. 相似文献
16.
Franz Huber 《Studia Logica》2007,86(2):299-329
The paper provides an argument for the thesis that an agent’s degrees of disbelief should obey the ranking calculus. This
Consistency Argument is based on the Consistency Theorem. The latter says that an agent’s belief set is and will always be
consistent and deductively closed iff her degrees of entrenchment satisfy the ranking axioms and are updated according to
the ranktheoretic update rules.
Special Issue Formal Epistemology I. Edited by Branden Fitelson 相似文献
17.
18.
I. C. V. Thuné-Boyle J. Stygall M. R. S. Keshtgar T. I. Davidson S. P. Newman 《Journal of religion and health》2011,50(2):203-218
The use of religious/spiritual resources may increase when dealing with the stress of a cancer diagnosis. However, there has
been very little research conducted into changes in religious/spiritual beliefs and practices as a result of a cancer diagnosis
outside the USA. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of a breast cancer diagnosis on patients’ religious/spiritual
beliefs and practices in the UK where religious practice is different. The study used two methods. One compared the religious/spiritual
beliefs and practices of 202 patients newly diagnosed with breast cancer with those of a control group of healthy women (n = 110). The other examined patients’ perceived change in religious/spiritual beliefs and practices at the time of surgery
with those in the year prior to surgery. The aspects of religiousness/spirituality assessed were: levels of religiosity/spirituality,
strength of faith, belief in God as well as private and public practices. Patient’s perceived their belief in God, strength
of faith and private religious/spiritual practices to have significantly increased shortly after surgery compared with the
year prior to surgery. However, there were no significant differences in religious/spiritual beliefs and practices between
patients and healthy participants. Change scores demonstrated both a reduction and an increase in religious/spiritual beliefs
and practices. Although belief in God, strength of faith and private religious/spiritual practices were perceived by patients
to be significantly higher after their cancer diagnosis, no significant differences in religious/spiritual beliefs and practices
were found between the cancer group at the time of surgery and the control group. Different methodologies appear to produce
different results and may explain contradictions in past US studies. Limitations of this study are discussed and suggestions
for future research are made. 相似文献
19.
Lars Gundersen 《Erkenntnis》2010,72(3):353-364
According to Nozick’s tracking theory of knowledge, an agent a knows that p just in case her belief that p is true and also satisfies the two tracking conditionals that had p been false, she would not have believed that p, and had p been true under slightly different circumstances, she would still have believed that p. In this paper I wish to highlight an interesting but generally ignored feature of this theory: namely that it is reminiscent
of a dispositional account of knowledge: it invites us to think of knowledge as a manifestation of a cognitive disposition to form true beliefs.
Indeed, given a general account of dispositions in terms of subjunctive conditionals, the two tracking conditionals are satisfied
just in case the belief in question results from some cognitive disposition to form true beliefs. Recently, such a conditional
account of dispositions has, however, been criticised for its vulnerability to so-called ‘masked’, ‘mimicked’ and ‘finkish’
counterexamples. I show how the classical counterexamples to Nozick’s theory divide smoothly into four corresponding categories
of counterexamples from epistemic masking, mimicking and finkishness. This provides strong evidence for the thesis that satisfaction of the two tracking conditionals
is symptomatic of knowledge and that knowledge is instead constituted by a dispositional capability to form true beliefs. The attempt to capture such a cognitive, dispositional capability in
terms of the tracking conditionals, although providing a good approximation in a wide variety of cases, still comes apart
from the real thing whenever the epistemic layout is characterised by masking-, mimicking- and finkish mechanisms. In the
last part of the paper I explore the prospect of improving the tracking theory in the light of these findings. 相似文献
20.
A paradox of self-reference in beliefs in games is identified, which yields a game-theoretic impossibility theorem akin to Russell’s Paradox. An informal version of the paradox is that the following configuration of beliefs is impossible:Ann believes that Bob assumes thatAnn believes that Bob’s assumption is wrongThis is formalized to show that any belief model of a certain kind must have a ‘hole.’ An interpretation of the result is that if the analyst’s tools are available to the players in a game, then there are statements that the players can think about but cannot assume. Connections are made to some questions in the foundations of game theory.Special Issue Ways of Worlds II. On Possible Worlds and Related Notions Edited by Vincent F. Hendricks and Stig Andur Pedersen 相似文献