IN PURSUIT OF GENERAL BEHAVIORAL RELATIONS

Efforts to develop behavioral technologies from advances in basic research assume that results from studies with nonhuman subjects can, in some instances, be applied to human behavior. The behavioral principles likely to be most useful for application are those that represent robust general behavioral relations. Basic and applied research on behavioral momentum suggests that there is a general behavioral relation between the persistence of behavior and the rate of reinforcement obtained in a given situation. Understanding the factors that affect behavioral persistence may have important implications for applied behavior analysts that justify studies aimed at establishing the generality and limits of the functional relation between reinforcement rate and behavioral persistence. Strategies for establishing the generality of behavioral relations are reviewed, followed by a brief summary of the evidence for the generality of behavioral momentum.     

Affective forecasting and self‐control: Why anticipating pride wins over anticipating shame in a self‐regulation context

We demonstrate that anticipating pride from resisting temptation facilitates self-control due to an enhanced focus on the self while anticipating shame from giving in to temptation results in self-control failure due to a focus on the tempting stimulus. In two studies we demonstrate the effects of anticipating pride (vs. shame) on self-control thoughts and behavior over time (Studies 1 and 2) and illustrate the process mechanism of self vs. stimulus focus underlying the differential influence of these emotions on self-control (Study 2). We present thought protocols, behavioral data (quantity consumed) and observational data (number/size of bites) to support our hypotheses.     

Anticipating the consequences of social behavior

Some forms of psychological theory explain behavior in part by its consequences. The consequences are called reinforcing if the behavior is strengthened; punishing if the behavior is weakened. Through repetition, the consequences eventually become generalized or anticipated. While social psychology has used consequences extensively in its manipulations, this has been implicit rather than explicit. This paper reviews ten such manipulations over ten areas of social psychology for the first time and shows how implicit consequences can determine social behavior. The problems with executing and interpreting these manipulations are extensively discussed. It is concluded that the notion of “anticipating the consequences of social behavior” can bring unity to many areas of social psychology and provide a sound motivational basis.     

Paradoxical intention in the treatment of urinary retention

Although most cases of psychogenic urinary retention can be ameliorated by a program composed of various behavioral techniques, there is a small percentage of cases which resists the behavioral treatment of choice. The present multiple case paper focused on the treatment of several resistant cases of functional urinary retention. Following a two week baseline period, each individual was exposed to eight weekly behavioral sessions. Whereas most cases of urinary retention have significantly improved by this time, the five individuals chosen for the present study were dissatisfied with their progress. Thus, following the eighth week, paradoxical intention was employed. Within six weeks treatment for the urinary problem was terminated as all clients were comfortable with this aspect of their daily behavior. It was hypothesized that cases of psychogenic urinary retention which resist behavioral techniques are possibly exacerbated by performance anxiety. Such anxiety can be efficiently handled by paradoxical intention.     

Use of behavioral techniques by paraprofessional staff: A review and proposal

Paraprofessionals are increasingly being employed to provide direct care to children and adults who have behavioral deficits and excesses, such as those labeled developmentally disabled, mentally ill, or delinquent. Behavioral techniques, if effectively taught to paraprofessionals, offer ways of both teaching new skills to clients and reducing their undesirable behaviors. This article describes the methods that have been used to teach paraprofessionals to use behavioral techniques, how these skills can be maintained on the job, and the effects upon client behavior that result from this teaching of paraprofessionals. In addition, a system for teaching staff to implement and continue to use behavioral techniques is proposed.     

Controlling experiments with a general-purpose time-sharing system

For many experiments in the behavioral and biomedical sciences, there is no substitute for an experimental-control computer with true real-time capabilities. However, if an experimenter can tolerate timing errors of several seconds, then he can reap the benefits of computer control by buying time on a general-purpose time-sharing system. There can be little doubt that a self-contained computer-controlled laboratory will be more economical if a fair number of experiments are contemplated. But when only a few experiments are planned, the researcher may find that he can run them with a general-purpose time-sharing system at only a fraction of the cost of establishing a     

Behavioral Treatment of Test Anxiety in a Drug Abuse Vocational Rehabilitation Day Program

Anxiety is one of the critical factors present in initiating and maintaining a drug-dependent pattern of behavior. This study examines test anxiety. The objective was to determine if a behavioral approach can be applied to the treatment of test anxiety in a vocational rehabilitation program for drug abuse clients. A case history is presented. Procedural details for applying behavioral techniques are discussed. The results of the study indicate that the treatment strategies selected were effective in reducing test anxiety. One of the side effects of using an approach that puts the technology of behavior change into the hands of the client is that the skills learned during treatment can be used to cope with problems other than those discussed with the counselor.     

Behavioral assessment of methylphenidate in a child with frontal lobe damage

The assessment and management of inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive behavior in a 6-year-old girl who experienced frontal lobe damage are described. A multimodel approach combining medical, educational, and behavioral techniques to assess hyperactive behavior, optimal medication level, and medication and psychotherapeutic effectiveness is described. The results of the study suggest that in similar cases, children and adolescents manifesting these behaviors should be given a trial of stimulant medication in a controlled environment to assess if such therapy is indicated. Additional support is given for the increasing need for detanté and cooperation with health-care professionals.     

The Search for Employment: Motivation to Engage in a Coping Behavior1

The search for employment was examined as coping through engagement in motivated behavior. A model predicting social networking and employer contact behavior was tested with a sample of persons anticipating college graduation. Proposed relations among behavioral antecedents were primarily drawn from Ajzen's (1985) theory of planned behavior, with the addition of cognitively appraised challenge. Structural equations analysis revealed general support for hypothesized relations among attitude, norms, perceived behavioral control, intentions, and behaviors. Cognitively appraised challenge partially mediated the effects of perceived behavioral control on job search intentions. Significant variance in job search attitude was attributed to a valence by outcome expectancy interaction. Findings may be useful in promoting job search efforts, as well as furthering theoretical delineation of the search process.     

NONCONTINGENT DELIVERY OF ARBITRARY REINFORCERS AS TREATMENT FOR SELF-INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR

Results of recent research have shown that noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) can be effective in reducing the frequency of behavior problems. In typical NCR applications, the reinforcer that is responsible for behavioral maintenance (as demonstrated through a functional analysis) no longer follows occurrences of the target behavior but instead is delivered according to a time-based schedule. Thus, it is unclear if NCR would be effective if the target behavior continued to be reinforced or if arbitrary reinforcers (i.e., those irrelevant to behavioral maintenance) were substituted for the maintaining reinforcers in the NCR procedure. In this study, 2 individuals whose self-injurious behavior (SIB) was maintained by positive reinforcement were exposed to conditions in which arbitrary and maintaining reinforcers were withheld and were delivered either contingently or noncontingently. Results indicated that noncontingent delivery of arbitrary reinforcers was effective in reducing SIB even though occurrences of SIB produced access to the maintaining reinforcer. These results suggest that (a) arbitrary reinforcers may sometimes be substituted for maintaining reinforcers, (b) an important component of NCR procedures is alteration of a behavior's establishing operation, and (c) NCR with arbitrary reinforcers might therefore be effective when maintaining reinforcers cannot be identified or withheld during the course of treatment.     

ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR DISORDERS

The influence of antecedent events on behavior disorders has been relatively understudied by applied behavior analysts. This lack of research may be due to a focus on consequences as determinants of behavior and a historical disagreement on a conceptual framework for describing and interpreting antecedent variables. We suggest that antecedent influences can be described using terms derived from basic behavioral principles and that their functional properties can be adequately interpreted as discriminative and establishing operations. A set of studies on assessment and treatment of behavior disorders was selected for review based on their relevance to the topic of antecedent events. These studies were categorized as focusing on assessment of antecedent events, antecedent treatments for behavior disorders maintained by either positive or negative reinforcement, and special cases of antecedent events in behavior disorders. Some directions for future research on antecedent influences in the analysis and treatment of behavior disorders are discussed.     

Formal modeling and analysis of cognitive agent behavior

From an external perspective, cognitive agent behavior can be described by specifying (temporal) correlations of a certain complexity between stimuli (input states) and (re)actions (output states) of the agent. From an internal perspective the agent's dynamics can be characterized by direct (causal) temporal relations between internal and mental states of the agent. The latter type of specifications can be represented in a relatively simple, executable format, which enables different types of analysis of the agent's behavior. In particular, simulations of the agent's behavior under different (environmental) circumstances can be explored. Furthermore, by applying verification techniques, automated analysis of the consequences of the agent's behavior can be carried out. To enable such types of analysis when only given an external behavioral specification, this has to be transformed first into some type of executable format. An automated procedure for such a transformation is proposed in this paper. The application of the transformation procedure is demonstrated for a number of cases, showing examples of the types of analysis as mentioned for different forms of behavior.     

Efficacy of self-instructional training for reducing children''s anxiety in an evaluative situation

Fifty-six fourth-grade children were categorized as either high or low in trait anxiety and then assigned to a self-instruction treatment, minimal-treatment, or no-treatment control condition. At both pretest and posttest, the subjects recited a memorized poem while being videotaped with the expectation that they would be judged on their performance. State anxiety measures, a behavior rating of anxiety, a measure of performance accuracy and the time involved in reciting a poem were obtained at both pretest and posttest. Contrary to expectation, the self-instructional training resulted in subjects' exhibiting greater signs of behavioral anxiety, subjects' hurrying through the task (taking less time to recite the poem) and high trait-anxiety subjects' reporting more state anxiety while anticipating reciting the poem. Correlational analyses indicated that trait anxiety was significantly related to the measures of state anxiety and the behavior rating of anxiety but not to performance accuracy.     

A modified cognitive-behavioral approach to group therapy with the elderly

Group approaches to treatment subsume a wide variety of techniques. The present article describes a modified cognitive behavioral approach as developed by the author for certain groups of elderly clients. This modified approach incorporates principles of cognitive behavioral therapy in combination with humanistic, and developmental perspectives, while leaving room for addressing psychodynamic issues if desired. It is suggested that such an approach is of value where structured group techniques are called for.     

Brain, emotion and decision making: the paradigmatic example of regret

Human decisions cannot be explained solely by rational imperatives but are strongly influenced by emotion. Theoretical and behavioral studies provide a sound empirical basis to the impact of the emotion of regret in guiding choice behavior. Recent neuropsychological and neuroimaging data have stressed the fundamental role of the orbitofrontal cortex in mediating the experience of regret. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data indicate that reactivation of activity within the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala occurring during the phase of choice, when the brain is anticipating possible future consequences of decisions, characterizes the anticipation of regret. In turn, these patterns reflect learning based on cumulative emotional experience. Moreover, affective consequences can induce specific mechanisms of cognitive control of the choice processes, involving reinforcement or avoidance of the experienced behavior.     

Rational models as theories - not standards - of behavior

When people's behavior in laboratory tasks systematically deviates from a rational model, the implication is that real-world performance could be improved by changing the behavior. However, recent studies suggest that behavioral violations of rational models are at least sometimes the result of strategies that are well adapted to the real world (and not necessarily to the laboratory task). Thus, even if one accepts that certain behavior in the laboratory is irrational, compelling evidence that real-world behavior ought to change accordingly is often lacking. It is suggested here that rational models be seen as theories, and not standards, of behavior.     

Nonsuicidal self-injury: relationship to behavioral and self-rating measures of impulsivity and self-aggression

Previous research using self-report measures has shown an association between nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior (NSSI) and impulsive tendencies. However, self-injurers have not been shown to be different from comparison groups on laboratory tasks putatively assessing impulsive behavior. One explanation for these contradictory findings is that self-report and laboratory measures of impulsive behavior tap into distinct but related constructs. Moreover, performance on laboratory measures of impulsive behavior can be influenced by myriad contextual and affective factors not present during past self-reported NSSI events. Accordingly, a relationship between behavioral tasks of impulsivity and self-injurious behavior could emerge if both are assessed relatively close in time under controlled laboratory conditions. To test this possibility, both self-ratings and laboratory task measures of self-injurious and impulsive behavior were employed in the current study. This multi-modal assessment approach revealed that self-rated impulsivity was associated with both self-report and behavioral measures of self-injurious behavior. Moreover, behavioral measures of impulsivity were associated with self-injurious behavior, but not NSSI history. These results provide support for the notion that a multi-modal approach to assessing self-injurious behavior is important for better understanding the correlates of nonsuicidal self-injury.     

Behavioral correlates of learned aggression in male mice

The aims of this paper are to study the aggressive behavior in male mice with consecutive experience of victories in 2, 10, and 20 days (T2, T10, and T20 winners) of daily agonistic confrontations under the sensory contact model and to determine the most probable behavioral domains that should be used as animal models for learned aggression in humans. It has been shown that the structure of winners' behavior changes from test to test: the attacking behavior prevailed (81% of the total time) in the behavior of T2 winners. Attacks and diggings (herein: digging up and scattering the litter on the partner' territory) prevailed in the behavior of T10 winners (each approximately 40%). T20 winners demonstrated aggressive grooming half of the testing time and digging behavior 25% of the time. Correlational analysis revealed that the number of significant correlations between the behavioral domains (attacking, digging, aggressive grooming, self‐grooming, threats, rotations) and between different behavioral parameters (latency, number, total and average time) of one behavioral domain are growing from the second test to twentieth test, and the relationships between the behavioral domains change qualitatively. The following may be regarded as elements of learned aggression in male mice: (1) appearance of aggressive grooming instead of the intensive attacking behavior and (2) involvement of the digging behavior in the hostile behavior together with the threats and attacking behavior. Negative correlations between parameters of the behavioral domains may testify to the replacement of one behavioral pattern by another and reflect learned behavior. Positive correlations between certain behavioral domains may reflect the formation of a common motivational background for the winners' behavior. Aggr. Behav. 26:386–400, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Capitalizing on the potential of mobile health applications as behavioral interventions: A research agenda for calorie-tracking and activity-tracking applications

Mobile health applications (mHealth apps) are widely used tools that provide support for people seeking help managing their health in a particular behavioral domain (e.g., physical activity). Despite their popularity, evidence for the effectiveness of mHealth apps as stand-alone behavioral interventions is limited. Psychological and behavioral scientists can play a critical role in addressing this gap by pursuing programs of research that leverage basic behavioral science principles to test links between key features of mHealth apps (e.g., goal setting, feedback) and behavior change. To demonstrate this approach to evaluating mHealth apps, we systematically examine five key features of popular calorie-tracking and activity-tracking apps, explain how these features align with established behavior change techniques, discuss the evidence base for the effectiveness of these techniques within each behavioral domain, and situate predictions about how individual app features may promote behavior change in a conceptual model. Through this work, researchers can guide the design of mHealth apps and optimize them for facilitating sustained health behavior change.     

IDENTIFICATION AND VALIDATION OF CRITICAL CONVERSATIONAL SOCIAL SKILLS

In this study, we used a four-step social validation process to identify and validate critical skill components that constitute high school students' conversational behavior. The four steps were nominating target behaviors, establishing a normative range of performance, manipulating simulations of behavioral dimensions, and comparing ratings of judges to levels of performance on those behavioral dimensions. Multiple measures, both quantitative and qualitative, suggested that the rate and percentage of time initiating and responding verbally, the percentage of time attending, and the percentage of time not engaging in distracting motor behavior related to favorable ratings by a wide variety of 60 judges. Findings are discussed in relation to the utility of the multistep social validation process and the identification of critical social skill components as targets of interventions.