The role of fair treatment and rewards in perceptions of organizational support and leader-member exchange

This study examined a model of the antecedents and consequences of perceived organizational support (POS) and leader-member exchange (LMX). It was predicted that organizational justice (procedural and distributive justice) and organizational practices that provide recognition to the employee (feelings of inclusion and recognition from upper management) would influence POS. For LMX, it was predicted that leader reward (distributive justice and contingent rewards) and punishment behavior would be important antecedents. Results based on a sample of 211 employee-supervisor dyads indicated that organizational justice, inclusion, and recognition were related to POS and contingent rewards were related to LMX. In terms of consequences, POS was related to employee commitment and organizational citizenship behavior, whereas LMX predicted performance ratings.     

领导-部属交换的多维结构及对工作绩效和情境绩效的影响

通过两项研究,对领导-部属交换的结构及其对员工的工作绩效和情境绩效进行了探讨。采用探索性因素分析、验证性因素分析、分层回归分析等方法对来自不同企业的员工及其主管的问卷调查结果进行了分析。 结果表明,领导-部属交换是一个多维度的结构,由情感、忠诚、贡献和专业尊敬四个维度组成。单维度的领导-部属交换和多维度的领导-部属交换都对员工的工作绩效和情境绩效具有预测作用,但多维度领导-部属交换的预测作用更强。     

Support from the top: supervisors' perceived organizational support as a moderator of leader-member exchange to satisfaction and performance relationships

The authors hypothesized that supervisors' perceived organizational support (POS) would moderate the relationships between leader-member exchange (LMX), job satisfaction, and job performance. On the basis of social exchange theory, supervisors' exchanges with the organization and subordinates should be interconnected. The authors expected that supervisors with high POS would have more resources to exchange with subordinates. Thus, supervisor POS should enhance the relationships between LMX and job satisfaction and LMX and job performance for subordinates. Hierarchical linear modeling analysis provided support for the hypotheses in a sample of 210 subordinates and 38 supervisors of a grocery store chain. The positive relationship between LMX and job satisfaction was stronger when supervisors had high POS. Moreover, LMX was related to performance only when supervisors had high POS.     

组织中的社会交换：由直接到间接

社会交换理论被引用来研究组织中的两种交换：员工与所在组织之间的交换——“感受组织支持”（POS）和员工与直接上司之间的交换——“领导—成员交换”（LMX）。以往的研究侧重于“直接交换”,即：从POS和LMX到员工工作产出的直接回归。该文以员工的组织情感承诺和工作满意感为中介变量,考察POS和LMX对员工工作产出的间接影响。在919份有效问卷的基础上,通过结构方程模型的比较,结果发现：组织情感承诺和工作满意感的确可以在POS和LMX与员工工作产出之间承担全部或部分中介的角色。这说明,员工与组织之间、上司与下属之间的交换只有小部分是“直接交换”,大部分则属于“间接交换”。最后,作者讨论了这些新发现的理论意义和实践意义,并指出了该研究的不足之处。     

The Effects of Perceived Supervisor Support,Perceived Organizational Support,and Organizational Justice on Turnover among Salespeople

This study examined effects of three dimensions of organizational justice on salesperson perceived organizational support (POS), perceived supervisor support (PSS), performance, and actual salesperson turnover in a business-to-business setting using a sample of 384 salespeople. Results indicated that PSS is an indirect predictor of turnover intentions through POS and performance. Organizational commitment mediated the relationship between POS and turnover intentions. Procedural justice had a direct, positive influence on performance. Distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice were indirect predictors of turnover through other variables. The salesperson’s performance was related directly to both turnover intentions and turnover.     

WORK VALUE CONGRUENCE AND INTRINSIC CAREER SUCCESS: THE COMPENSATORY ROLES OF LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT

We hypothesized that leader-member exchange (LMX) and perceived organizational support (POS) would each interact with work value congruence in relation to intrinsic career success. In a sample of 520 teachers from 30 high schools in Turkey, we found that work value congruence was positively related to job and career satisfaction when POS was low but not related to job and career satisfaction when POS was high. Similarly, work value congruence was positively related to career satisfaction when LMX was low but not related when LMX was high. The results contribute to the POS, LMX, and person-organization fit literatures by demonstrating the compensatory nature of LMX and POS for low value congruence in its relation to job and career satisfaction.     

Social exchange relationships and exchange ideologies of employees and supervisors: A three-way interaction toward employee creativity

This study aims to better understand the effects of social exchange relationships between employees and their organizations (perceived organizational support [POS]), and their leaders (leader–member exchange [LMX]) on their creativity. To this end, we investigated how exchange ideologies of employees and supervisors affect the relationship between POS/LMX and employee creativity using a three-way interaction test. Building on the social exchange theory, the results from our sample of 254 leader–employee dyads indicated that the relationship between POS/LMX and employee creativity is significantly more positive for an employee with strong exchange ideology than for an employee with weak exchange ideology. Moreover, POS and LMX had the strongest positive relationships with creativity when both employees and supervisors had higher levels of exchange ideology. The implications of our results and future research directions are discussed.     

An examination of crossover and spillover effects of spousal and expatriate cross-cultural adjustment on expatriate outcomes

Integrating work-family and cross-cultural adjustment literatures, the researchers proposed and tested a spillover and crossover model of expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment with reciprocal relationships. Spillover effects refer to the influence that expatriate attitudes in a particular domain (e.g., work) have on attitudes in other domains (e.g., nonwork), whereas crossover effects refer to the influence of expatriate attitudes on the spouse's attitudes (and vice versa). Data collected from Japanese expatriates, their spouses, and their superiors strongly supported both spillover and crossover effects between expatriate and spousal cross-cultural adjustment. In addition, expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment was found to be related to satisfaction, which, in turn, was found to be negatively related to expatriates' intention to return to their homeland early.     

心理契约破坏感对员工工作态度和行为的影响

通过对398名企业员工的问卷调查,探讨了组织支持感(POS)和领导—部属交换(LMX)在心理契约破坏感对员工工作态度和行为影响中的中介作用。结果表明：（1）POS在心理契约破坏感与员工工作态度（组织认同和留职意愿）的关系中起中介作用,但POS只能部分中介心理契约破坏感与留职意愿的关系。（2）LMX在心理契约破坏感与员工组织公民行为（利他行为、个人主动性、人际和谐和保护公司资源）间起完全中介作用。（3）LMX对员工的工作态度（留职意愿和组织认同）不具有直接的影响作用,它主要是通过POS的中介对其产生间接的影响     

Differences between follower and dyadic measures of LMX as mediators of emotional intelligence and employee performance,well-being,and turnover intention

Both leader and follower emotional intelligence (EI) have been posited in the literature to influence leader–member exchange (LMX). We collected data from 203 independent leader–follower dyads working in the insurance industry in Malaysia and examined relationships between leader and follower trait-EI and follower outcomes mediated through LMX. We added a further dimension to our study by comparing results using follower and then a dyadic measure of LMX. We found that leader EI predicted a dyadic measure of LMX, whilst only follower EI predicted a follower measure of LMX. As hypothesized, leader EI had both direct and indirect effects on follower job performance. By contrast, follower EI demonstrated both direct and indirect effects on follower well-being. We found a dyadic measure of LMX to be a stronger predictor of follower job performance, well-being, and turnover intention than a follower only measure. Our results suggest that significant relationships between leader and follower trait EI and LMX depend on whether follower or dyadic measures of LMX are used. The study draws attention to the importance of emphasizing the level at which EI effects are expected to operate in LMX.     

The Job Demands and Resources Decision Making (JD-R-DM) Model

This study explores the effects of nurses’ daily job characteristics (i.e., job demands and resources) and general work engagement on their daily decision making (i.e., analytical and intuitive) and consequently their daily performance (i.e., task and contextual). Participants completed a baseline questionnaire and a diary for five consecutive days. Results reveal a positive influence of the job demands “work pressure” and “predictability” on analytical decision making. In turn, analytical decision making promotes task performance. Work pressure also negatively influences intuitive decision making which, in turn, stimulates task and contextual performance. However, the job resource (i.e., autonomy) had a nonsignificant relationship with decision making. General work engagement had positive effects on analytical decision making and moderated the relationship between intuitive decision making and contextual performance. For those high on work engagement, the relation was stronger compared to their counterparts low on work engagement. Results corroborate that expanding and testing decision-making theories can increase understanding on how the work environment and engagement influence employee decision making and performance.     

Expatriate adjustment: The role of justice and conflict in intimate relationships

Framing expatriation as family relocation, this research examines the influence of perceived justice and conflict on the psychological adjustment of 103 expatriate couples. Based on the actor–partner interdependence model, the proposed model simultaneously addresses effects of justice and conflict on own and partner's outcomes. Supporting the current model, and based on the self‐interest model, distributive justice influenced work‐related task conflict among expatriates and household‐related task conflict among expatriate spouses. Among expatriate spouses, and in line with the group‐value model, fairness perceptions regarding interpersonal treatment influenced both parties' personal conflict. Unanticipated, both parties' distributive justice also influenced personal conflict. Personal conflict negatively affected both parties' psychological adjustment and acted as a mediator in the relationship between distributive justice and psychological adjustment.     

The role of goal orientation during expatriation: a cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation

Using cross-sectional and longitudinal data from expatriates in China, the authors investigated the roles of general, work, and interaction adjustment, as well as work stress, as mediators between the antecedents (learning, proving, and avoiding goal orientations, and perceived organizational support) and expatriate outcome (job performance and premature return intention) relationships. Results indicated that goal orientations toward overseas assignments had differential relationships with expatriate job performance and premature return intention. In addition, it was found that these relationships were partially mediated by expatriate adjustment facets. Implications for expatriate adjustment research and practice are discussed.     

Reactive Adjustment or Proactive Embedding? Multistudy,Multiwave Evidence for Dual Pathways to Expatriate Retention

The dominant perspective on expatriation characterizes the process as a continuing adaptation to existing job demands on an international assignment. Another, less studied perspective, emphasizes that expatriates can initiate tactics to acquire task, interpersonal, and affective resources for shaping their assignment experiences. Adopting a positive organizational scholarship lens and drawing on the job demands–resources model, we simultaneously examine both of these reactive demand‐based and proactive resource‐based pathways to expatriate retention. We propose that cross‐cultural uncertainty demands and expatriate‐initiated resource acquisition tactics both influence adjustment and embeddedness. Thus embeddedness works alongside adjustment to drive expatriates’ plans to remain in the international position, which in turn leads to actual retention. Using evidence from 2 separate panel studies (one with 2 waves and the other with 4 waves of data), we demonstrate the importance of the resource‐based pathway for expatriate assignments.     

新员工工作重塑会带来积极的结果吗?领导成员交换与个体传统性的作用

每年都有大量的高校毕业生进入职场。在企业竞争日趋激烈的今天, 如何将这些大学毕业生快速地转变成高绩效的企业员工, 是一个重要的研究议题。基于自我表达的理论视角, 本研究探讨工作重塑能否促进新员工的任务绩效和创造力, 以及领导成员交换和个体传统性如何影响新员工的工作重塑。我们对256名新员工进行4轮的问卷调查, 最终得到125份有效的匹配问卷。数据分析结果显示: (1)工作重塑会正向影响新员工的工作投入, 进而影响他们的任务绩效和创造力; (2)对于传统性比较高的新员工, 领导成员交换可以促进他们的工作重塑; (3)个体传统性正向调节领导成员交换对任务绩效、创造力的间接作用, 当个体传统性高时, 领导成员交换通过工作重塑和工作投入对任务绩效、创造力的积极影响更为显著。本研究从新员工自我表达的视角为组织提升新员工的任务绩效和创造力提供了新的思路。     

Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) and Performance: A Meta‐Analytic Review

This paper reports a meta‐analysis that examines the relationship between leader–member exchange (LMX) relationship quality and a multidimensional model of work performance (task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance). The results show a positive relationship between LMX and task performance (146 samples, ρ = .30) as well as citizenship performance (97 samples, ρ = .34), and negatively with counterproductive performance (19 samples, ρ = ?.24). Of note, there was a positive relationship between LMX and objective task performance (20 samples, ρ = .24). Trust, motivation, empowerment, and job satisfaction mediated the relationship between LMX and task and citizenship performance with trust in the leader having the largest effect. There was no difference due to LMX measurement instrument (e.g., LMX7, LMX‐MDM). Overall, the relationship between LMX and performance was weaker when (a) measures were obtained from a different source or method and (b) LMX was measured by the follower than the leader (with common source‐ and method‐biased effects stronger for leader‐rated LMX quality). Finally, there was evidence for LMX leading to task performance but not for reverse or reciprocal directions of effects.     

An integrative approach to leadership and social support

This study examined the effects of instrumental and socio-emotional behaviors of friends on stress reactions and task performance. A 2 (presence or absence of instrumental behavior) * 2 (presence or absence of socio-emotional behavior) * 2 (high or low legitimacy of influence) factorial design was used. Ninety-one college-age females as subjects and their close same-sex friends as confederates participated together in the experiment. Dependent variables were mean blood pressure (MBP) as a physiological stress reaction, state anxiety as a psychological stress reaction, and the level of performance in a simple arithmetic task. Instrumental behavior had a facilitating effect on task performance in the high legitimacy condition. Socio-emotional behavior showed a buffering effect on physiological stress reaction when the friend did not engage in instrumental behavior in the low legitimacy condition. These findings suggest that legitimacy of influence may be able to explain the differences between leadership and social support processes.     

AN EXAMINATION OF LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY: THE RELEVANCE OF TRAITS AND RELATIONSHIPS

Creativity is becoming a topic of ever-increasing interest to organizational managers. Thus, there is a need for a greater understanding of the dynamics between the personal and contextual factors responsible for creative performance in work settings. In particular, there is a need to identify the role of leadership for creativity. Until now, creativity studies have examined leadership and employee characteristics from a single-domain perspective. Data from 191 R&D employees of a large chemical company were used to test a multidomain, interactionist creativity model of employee characteristics, leader characteristics, and Leader-Member Exchange (LMX). Results suggest that employee intrinsic motivation and cognitive style, LMX, the interactions between employee intrinsic motivation and leader intrinsic motivation, and between LMX and employee cognitive style relate to employee creative performance as measured by supervisor ratings, invention disclosure forms, or research reports. Implications for practicing managers and research on leadership and creativity are discussed.     

工作绩效与工作满意度、组织承诺和目标定向的关系

在全面回顾工作绩效及其影响因素的基础上,通过关键事件方法和问卷调查方法,对来自全国的1066位雇员进行了施测,运用AMOS软件,对工作绩效结构进行验证性因素分析,并对文中提出的假设进行了检验。之后,提出并验证了影响员工工作绩效的态度因素及整合模型。研究结果显示：工作满意度、组织承诺和目标定向对工作绩效的各个子维度的影响是不一致的。工作满意度越高,员工的工作绩效越好;另一方面,组织承诺和目标定向对雇员工作绩效各个子维度的影响不一致。文章最后对全文进行了总结,并对后续研究给出了建议     

Leader-Member Exchange and Employee Creativity: Test of a Multilevel Moderated Mediation Model

Using multisource data, this article examined the relationship of two types of employee perceptions of overall fairness (i.e., fairness of the organization and fairness of the department), with supervisor ratings of in-role task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). We also examined whether high-quality leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships compensate for negative effects of fairness on job performance and citizenship behaviors. Focusing on a sample of 154 health care workers, we found that only employee perceptions of overall fairness regarding the department were related to supervisory ratings of OCB and in-role task performance. Moreover, LMX moderated the relationships between fairness perceptions and (a) task performance, (b) organization-focused OCB, but not (c) individual-focused OCB. We discuss implications for research and the potential for reducing negative effects of low fairness perceptions on job performance through positive LMX.