Female Adolescents, Sexual Empowerment and Desire: A Missing Discourse of Gender Inequity

In this commentary, I offer a response to Lamb & Peterson (2011). I base these comments on the feminist scholarship on adolescent girls’ healthy sexuality that Lamb (2010a) critiqued in the first of this series. I address and redress several of her concerns by providing the context and history of my own research and recovering the meanings of desire, pleasure and subjectivity as they appeared in this body of work. I then engage Lamb and Peterson’s points of consensus about the role of sexual empowerment in adolescent girls’ healthy sexuality by 1) positioning sexualization as more than a context; 2) identifying a missing discourse of gender inequity as a central issue in their discussion; and 3) explaining how the use of theory and interpretation in feminist research methods is necessary for and distinct from a surface reading of narratives of lived experience. Finally, I will provide examples of some alternative paths for supporting healthy adolescent women’s sexuality that extend beyond school-based sex education and media literacy into alternative engagements with girls through technology, media activism and participatory practices.     

Adolescent Girls’ Sexual Empowerment: Two Feminists Explore the Concept

Although all feminists tend to value empowered female sexuality, feminists often disagree, sometimes heatedly so, about the definition of and path to empowered sexuality among adolescent girls. In this theoretical paper, two feminists, who have previously expressed differing perspectives regarding adolescent girls’ sexual empowerment (Lamb 2010a, b; Peterson 2010), discuss their disagreements and attempt to find some common ground in their viewpoints on girls’ sexuality. A critical question related to sexual empowerment is whether empowerment includes a subjective sense of efficacy, desire, and pleasure. In other words, are girls sexually empowered if they feel that they are empowered? The authors identify three themes that make answering this question particularly challenging—age differences, exposure to sexualized media, and the pressure to please a partner. Despite these challenges, the authors identify several points of consensus, including agreeing that adequate sexuality education and media literacy education are vital to optimizing adolescent girls’ sexual empowerment.     

Local erotic songs and chants among rural Nigerian adolescent males

This paper investigates local erotic songs and chants circulating among adolescent males in Nigeria. The purpose is to assess the critical themes which these erotic verses evoke and their potentials in the discursive construction of adolescent sexual identities and definition of the (erotic) spaces and meanings on the basis of which young Nigerian males constitute their sexual conducts. Data indicate high level of awareness and knowledge of local erotic songs and chants among adolescent males. The songs and chants were reportedly used to learn about gender and sex roles, the body, and sexuality, and for recreation. Themes in local boys’ erotic songs and chants are primarily male privileging and penis advantaging, and celebrate male sexual activity, desire, violence, ruthlessness, and risk-taking as well as male control and subordination of women and their body. The songs and chants depict feminity and female sexuality as inferior to masculinity and male sexuality and tend to objectify women’s body as a facility for male sexual pleasure. The paper argues that while erotic verses circulating among adolescent Nigerian males help relieve them of the difficulties caused by the cultural relegation of sex and sexuality to the realm of the unspoken, they contain very disturbing and potentially dangerous images that provide little space for male responsibility and respect for women. Local erotic verses circulating among adolescents present an under-explored resource in sexuality education and a critical entry point for current efforts to understand and help young people extricate themselves from the sea of half-truths, myths, and prejudices about sex and sexuality.     

Barriers to mother-adolescent communication about sex,maternal monitoring and sexual behaviour among adolescents in Mexico

Mexican mothers have an important role in adolescent sexuality; however, they report multiple barriers to parent–child sex communication, which may impact adolescent sexual behaviour. This cross-sectional study examines whether adolescent perceptions of maternal barriers to communication are associated with adolescent sexual behaviour frequency indirectly through its association with maternal monitoring, and whether these associations differ by age and gender. Mexican adolescents (N = 1433), ages 12–19 (53% girls), completed a survey on normative sexual behaviours, adolescent perceptions of maternal barriers to sex communication, and maternal monitoring. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that more barriers to communication (adolescent perceptions) were associated with more sexual behaviour frequency (i.e., oral and vaginal sex) among Mexican adolescents indirectly through its association with maternal monitoring. Findings were stronger for adolescents in 8th grades, but no differences were found by gender. This model expands our understanding of the parenting factors that impact Mexican adolescent sexuality.     

Quick-fix sex: pseudosexuality in adolescents

This paper offers therapists, parents, and educators a model for understanding adolescent sexuality. The focus is on how nonsexual needs drive sexual behavior and produce an artificially high sex drive. It proposes that the overwhelming intensity of the adolescent sex drive is due to factors other than libido or biological phenomena. The critical factor in helping teenagers control their sexuality responsibly is to teach them what these needs are and how they influence sexual behavior.     

Understanding the Relationship between Religiosity and Caregiver–Adolescent Communication About Sex within African-American Families

Caregiver–adolescent communication about sex plays a critical role in the sexual socialization of youth. Many caregivers, however, do not engage their youth in such conversations, potentially placing them at risk for negative sexual health outcomes. Lack of caregiver–adolescent communication about sex may be particularly harmful for rural African American youth, as they often report early sex initiation and are disproportionately impacted by STIs. Moreover, sexual communication may be particularly challenging for families with strong religious backgrounds, potentially affecting the occurrence and breadth of topics covered during communication. Study aims were to: determine whether there was a relationship between caregiver religiosity and type of topics covered during communication about sex (e.g., general sexual health vs. positive aspects of sexuality) among 435 caregivers of early adolescent, African American youth; and if so, identify factors that might explain how religiosity affects communication about sex. Results indicated that caregiver religiosity was positively associated with communication about general, but not positive aspects of sexuality for caregivers of males. Attitudes towards communication about sex and open communication style mediated the relationship. There was no association between religiosity and communication about sex for caregivers of females. The findings from this study could provide a base to better understand and support the sexual socialization process within religious, African American families.     

Televised sexual content and parental mediation: Influences on adolescent sexuality

Little research has been conducted to examine the influence of exposure to televised sexual content on adolescent sexuality or how parental intervention may reduce negative effects of viewing such content. This study uses self-report data from 1,012 adolescents to investigate the relations among exposure to sexually suggestive programming, parental mediation strategies, and three types of adolescent sexuality outcomes: participation in oral sex and sexual intercourse, future intentions to engage in these behaviors, and sex expectancies. As predicted, exposure to sexual content was associated with an increased likelihood of engaging in sexual behaviors, increased intentions to do so in the future, and more positive sex expectancies. Often, parental mediation strategies were a significant factor in moderating these potential media influences.     

Televised Sexual Content and Parental Mediation: Influences on Adolescent Sexuality

Little research has been conducted to examine the influence of exposure to televised sexual content on adolescent sexuality or how parental intervention may reduce negative effects of viewing such content. This study uses self-report data from 1,012 adolescents to investigate the relations among exposure to sexually suggestive programming, parental mediation strategies, and three types of adolescent sexuality outcomes: participation in oral sex and sexual intercourse, future intentions to engage in these behaviors, and sex expectancies. As predicted, exposure to sexual content was associated with an increased likelihood of engaging in sexual behaviors, increased intentions to do so in the future, and more positive sex expectancies. Often, parental mediation strategies were a significant factor in moderating these potential media influences.     

Identity, sexuality and the self in late adolescence

This paper explores the concepts of identity, sexuality and the self within the context of adolescent development. The development of the identity concept in adolescence is traced in Jung's theoretical, clinical and autobiographical writings. Jung's adolescent development is viewed as the matrix out of which the identity concept emerged within analytical psychology. This was later elaborated theoretically by Jung in Symbols of Transformation (1912/1956). One of Jung's clinical cases of a late adolescent is discussed in which themes related to the development of identity and sexuality emerged. An adolescent case from the author's analytic practice is presented where similar themes of identity, homosexuality and self emerged. The developmental and symbolic themes which emerged in the analysis are viewed within the context of the transference/countertransference relationship.     

Sources of sexual information and sexual attitudes and behaviors of Anglo and Hispanic adolescent males.

A survey of Anglo and Hispanic adolescent males' sources of sexual information and their attitudes and practices was conducted. A comparison of attitudes and behaviors revealed little difference by ethnicity; however, a more detailed analysis of sources of information resulted in some interesting findings. The relationship between completing a sex education class and condom use was statistically significant in a positive direction. In addition, this relationship was much stronger for Hispanic youth. The important implications of this finding are discussed.     

"This strange disease": adolescent transference and the analyst's sexual orientation

The treatment of adolescents by gay analysts is uncharted territory regarding the impact of the analyst's sexuality on the analytic process. Since a core challenge of adolescence involves the integration of the adult sexual body, gender role, and reproductive capacities into evolving identity, and since adolescents seek objects in their environment to facilitate both identity formation and the establishment of autonomy from primary objects, the analyst's sexual orientation is arguably a potent influence on the outcome of adolescent development. However, because sexual orientation is a less visible characteristic of the analyst than gender, race, or age, for example, the line between reality and fantasy is less clearly demarcated. This brings up special considerations regarding discovery and disclosure in the treatment. To explore these issues, the case of a late adolescent girl in treatment with a gay male analyst is presented. In this treatment, the question of the analyst's sexual orientation, and the demand by the patient for the analyst's self-disclosure, became a transference nucleus around which the patient's individual dynamics and adolescent dilemmas could be explored and clarified.     

Dynamics in the Notions of Sexuality Among Three Generations of Bulgarian Muslims

Based on ethnographic research in a Muslim town in Bulgaria, this study provides a comparative analysis, exploring the modernization of sex and sexuality within three generations of Pomaks (Slavic Muslims). Although the modernization of sexuality was “postponed” by the repression against Muslims in Bulgaria during communism known as “Rebirth process”, the results from the study show that the detraditionalization of sexuality is not a rapid and recent process and that different (hidden) forms of sexual/intimate interaction have existed long before the democratic changes after 1989. The liberalization of the sexual attitudes after 1989 was strongly intensified by the opening of a high school in the community, the development of the local economy, and the influence of media. The emerging non-traditional models of sexual behavior and attitudes are initiated primarily by women with higher education within the context of women rights and independence. However, the modernization is not a homogeneous linear process but is rather adapted to the local customs and expectations and depends greatly on the educational status of women. Paying particular attention to the women’s sexuality, this study analyzes the processes of detraditionalization of sexuality in comparison to another Muslim community in Bulgaria known for its re-traditionalization in terms of gender and sexuality because of the influence of Arabic organizations. The results suggest that the ethnic isolation and the following need for ethnic identification of Pomaks has intensified two opposite tendencies regarding sexual attitudes in two similar communities.     

Influences on Sexual Partnering Among African American Adolescents With Concurrent Sexual Relationships

Adolescents often engage in concurrent sexual partnerships as part of a developmental process of gaining experience with sexuality. The authors qualitatively examined patterns of concurrency and variation in normative and motivational influences on this pattern of sexual partnering among African American adolescents (31 males; 20 females), ages 15 to 17 years. Using content analysis, gender and contextual differences in social norms and motivations for concurrency were explored. Findings describe the normative influences on adolescent males and females with regard to sexual concurrency and the transfer of these norms from one generation to the next.     

Daily mood, partner support, sexual interest, and sexual activity among adolescent women.

The main objective of this study was to examine day-to-day associations of coitus, sexual interest, partner emotional support, negative mood, and positive mood among adolescent women. Diaries assessed partner interactions, sexual activity, substance use, and mood. Participants were 146 adolescent women who provided 28,376 diary days. Correlates of coitus on a given day included age, increased coital frequency in previous week, coitus on the previous day, partner support, increased same-day sexual interest, and decreased same-day negative mood. The data demonstrate complex associations of sexual interest, mood, partner interactions, and sexual activity. The findings extend understanding of the sexuality of adolescent women and have implications for a variety of interventions to reduce sexually transmitted infections and unplanned pregnancies.     

Adolescent sexual behavior.

Pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases among adolescents is considered a major problem in our society. The purpose of this study is to review the past five years of professional literature on adolescent sexuality to determine the factors which influence this social phenomenon as well as effective interventions. The importance of the family and religion on sexual attitudes and behaviors, how sexual activity is related to other age-related behaviors and delinquency, the relationship between early coital behaviors and the risk of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, and attitudes toward contraception and abstinence are discussed. Also addressed are the possible psychological effects of sexual activity on the development of the adolescent.     

Changing Discourse,Learning Sex,and Non-coital Heterosexuality

Young people learn what sex is, how to perform it, and what status it has largely through discourse. Sexual discourse has changed since the mid-twentieth century, but coitus still dominates heterosexual sex talk, and both change and continuity are reflected in adolescent sexual attitudes and behavior. Acceptance of non-coital sexuality among LGBTQ people and heterosexuals has increased, but these behaviors often have a different status when performed by members of each of these groups. Non-coital acts may be legitimately sexual when performed by non-heterosexuals, but coitus remains the paradigmatic heterosexual activity even though young heterosexuals often engage in non-coital behaviors. Young heterosexuals often differentiate real coital sex from quasi-sexual non-coital behaviors, and sexuality researchers, clinicians, and educators frequently reinforce this distinction and threaten the sexual status and self-esteem of young heterosexuals who do not like or cannot perform coitus. Many sexuality professionals urge young heterosexuals to recognize non-coital acts as sexual because of their risks of sexually transmitted infections, but sometimes also undermine this message by describing these acts as preliminaries to or substitutes for coitus. These professionals use an objective language of sexuality which presumably should supplant the mistaken usages of young people, but they overlook their own dependence on culturally constructed sexual discourse, and can impose needless problems on young people.