Anthropometric profiles and social physique anxiety of physical education professionals from India

Previous work indicates that there may be a relationship between the observation and evaluation of one's physique and the construct of social physique anxiety associated with this process. Since physical educators are expected to serve as role models of desired fitness behaviors, bodily appearance, and composition, it is of interest to examine whether such responses and relationships may be observed. However, there is limited published information on anthropometric profiles and body images of physical education professionals, especially of those from India. Therefore, this study compared anthropometric profiles and Social Physique Anxiety in a sample of 182 male physical education professionals from India (M age=41.2 yr.). Body Mass Index, sum of three skinfolds (Tricep, Abdomen, and Thigh), and waist/hip ratio were determined using standard procedures. The sample was grouped into overweight and normal weight categories. Significant group differences were found for the sum of skinfolds and waist/hip ratio, with no significant differences between groups on the Social Physique Anxiety total score. Correlations for the anthropometric measures with the Social Physique Anxiety scores indicated no significant relationships. Mean total Social Physique Anxiety score for the combined group was comparable to those reported for other groups of physically active individuals. These findings indicate low Social Physique Anxiety in this sample and may have implications with regard to the attitudes pertaining to body image and role modeling of appropriate fitness behaviors.     

The Role of Harsh Discipline in Explaining Sex Differences in Conduct Disorder: a Study of Opposite-Sex Twin Pairs

In the current study, two hypotheses about the role of harsh discipline (HD) in explaining the sex difference in the prevalence of conduct disorder (CD) were evaluated: that boys exhibit more CD than girls because (1) they are exposed to more HD and/or (2) there is a greater association between HD and CD in boys. These hypotheses were evaluated in a sample of male and female adult twins from different families (N = 3,502) as well as a sample of adult twin brothers and sisters (N = 655) in order to examine the extent to which sex differences remained after controlling for between-family differences. Retrospective reports of HD experienced between ages 6–13 and DSM-IV CD symptoms experienced before age 18 were obtained via structured psychiatric telephone interviews. Boys reported higher mean levels of HD and CD than girls, both between and within families, and the results of model-fitting analyses suggested that differences in the use of harsh disciplinary practices for sons versus daughters may partially explain the sex difference in the prevalence of CD. Between families, the relation between HD and CD was greater for girls than boys, but within families, there was no evidence of a sex difference in the relation between HD and CD. Inconsistent between-family and within-family results suggest that factors that differ between families are confounded with sex differences in the relation between HD and CD. A more stringent test of sex differences involves eliminating these between-family differences by studying boys and girls within the same family.     

Digit ratio and faculty membership: Implications for the relationship between prenatal testosterone and academia

Digit ratio (length of index finger divided by length of ring finger) is an index of exposure to prenatal testosterone. Prenatal testosterone slows the growth rate of the left side of the brain while enhancing growth of the right side. Right hemisphere processing is associated with better visual‐spatial and mathematical abilities, as is digit ratio. Thus, traditional sex differences in visual‐spatial and mathematical abilities can be attributed to differences in exposure to prenatal testosterone, indexed by a sex dimorphic pattern in digit ratio (female=1.00, male=0.98 for UK samples). Additionally, the digit ratio is a marker for within‐sex variance in visual‐spatial ability. This study examines the digit ratio of an academic sample. No sex differences are found and there is a significant difference between the Science Faculty and Social Science Faculty. Social Scientists of both sexes have a ratio consistent with the male norm (0.98) whilst Scientists have a digit ratio consistent with the female norm (1.00). These results are discussed in terms of the lower normal range of male testosterone being associated with highest visual spatial abilities. Relationships with fertility and Dyslexia are also identified.     

Relationship of perceived physical self-concept and physical activity level and sex among young children

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between level of physical activity and perceived physical self-concept of young children. The sample comprised 364 children from Slovenia, aged 6.4 yr. (SD = 0.3), of which 179 were boys and 185 girls. Parents and teachers reported children's physical activity using the Harro questionnaire. We divided children into Low and High Activity groups based on their mean scores. The children completed Stein's Children's Physical Self-concept Scale, which assesses Global Physical Self-concept and the subdomains of Physical Performance, Physical Appearance, and Weight Control behavior. Two-way analysis of variance with both sex and physical activity levels, and their interaction were used to examine differences in Physical Self-concept. There were significant differences between the Low and High Activity groups on scores for global Physical Self-concept Scale, Physical Performance, and Weight Control, on which children from the High Activity group scored higher; whereas on the subscale Physical Appearance, there were no significant differences. There were no significant sex differences on the Physical Self-concept Scale. The most important conclusion of this research indicates the theoretical assumptions that Physical Activity and perceived Physical Self-concept are related. Direction of the relationship remains unclarified.     

A case-control analysis of felony convictions among recreational drug users

This study applied an epidemiologic case-control design to the identification of variables predicting which subjects in a population of recreational drug users were likely to have a felony conviction. A sample of 158 self-identified drug users responded to the web-based DRUGNET survey from February, 1997 through June, 1998. In this sample of 704 U.S. citizens who reported using illicit drugs, 79 (11.2%) reported having a drug-related felony conviction. A further 52 (7.4%) subjects reported felony convictions not related to drugs. Control subjects were drawn from the same sample and matched to cases on sex, age, and ethnicity. Subjects with drug-related convictions differed significantly from controls on 13 variables and those with nondrug-related convictions differed on 11 variables out of the 82 used in this study. Although there are major limitations given the self-selection of the sample, the differences between the groups indicates that we should be wary in generalizing from the minority of drug users who are arrested or incarcerated to the population of drug users in general.     

Sense of coherence,resilience, and habitual optimism in cancer patients

Background/ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to investigate whether the three resource variables sense of coherence, resilience, and dispositional optimism become impaired when people are ill with cancer, whether there are sex and age differences in these variables, and how these variables are associated with quality of life (QoL).MethodA sample of 1108 patients with mixed cancer diagnoses were examined using the Sense of Coherence Scale-3 (SOC-3), the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS), the Life Orientation Test (LOT-R), and the QoL questionnaire EORTC QLQ-C30.ResultsThe three resource variables showed somewhat lower levels in the patients’ sample in comparison with general population controls, with effect sizes between ?0.10 and ?0.23. While there were only small sex differences in the resource variables, significant age differences were found in these variables, with stronger detriments in younger patients. The correlations among the resource variables ranged between .53 and .61. Sense of coherence was more strongly correlated with QoL than resilience and optimism.ConclusionsCancer patients with low levels of personal resources adapt to their disease more poorly than patients with high levels. In addition to limitations in QoL, health care professionals should also consider patients’ resources for coping with the disease. Special attention should be given to young cancer patients.     

Women with low activity are at increased risk for depression

This study assessed if there are sex differences in the relationship between amount of physical activity and depression in primary care outpatients. Participants (N= 111), referred by their family physicians, wore a heart-rate monitor for 24 hr. The two-lead monitor collected the number of beats per minute and minute-averaged horizontal movement data, e.g., from walking or moving about. All participants underwent structured clinical interviewing using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV and completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised. For the total sample, patients with low activity were more likely to be depressed (p<.006). Adults under the age of 45 (n=85) with low activity were 7.4 times more likely to be depressed than young adults who showed normal activity. However, in adults 45 or older, there was no relationship between activity and depression. In a subsample of women under the age of 55 (n=70), 91% of the low activity group and 39% of the normal activity group were diagnosed with depression (p<.003). Women in the low activity group were 15.7 times more likely to be depressed than women in the normal activity group. In contrast, there was no relationship between activity and depression in men. Additional research is needed to assess whether low activity is a potent predictor of depression in women.     

Reading the road: The influence of age and sex on child pedestrians' perceptions of road risk

The United Kingdom has one of the highest records of child pedestrian accidents in the European Union, and statistics show boys are particularly vulnerable. This study investigated whether there were identifiable developmental or sex differences in the perception of road risk, which might explain the occurrence of such child pedestrian accidents. The study was a between‐participants experimental design with three independent variables: age, sex and task. The sample comprised 119 school children in three age groups (7–8 years; 9–10 years and 11–12 years) with equal sex distribution in each age group. All children, tested individually, completed two sorting tasks. The tasks differed in that children first classified 20 photographs of road scenes on self‐selected criteria (free sort) and then reclassified the scenes on the basis of safety of each scene (cued sort). When children operated a free sort, age differences were apparent in both the number and type of categories produced. However, this age variation was not apparent for the cued sort showing that the younger children were strongly influenced by cueing. Younger children exhibited a more personal and idiosyncratic perspective of the road compared to older children, who were able to view the road from global perspectives. Sex differences in assessing safety were limited but interesting, demonstrating that the males focussed on physical attributes of the scene and females on the actors within the scene. The focus of females on the dynamic attributes of the scene may be a partial explanation of their greater safety record compared to their male peers.     

Relationships Among Education,Age, and Cognitive Functioning in Older African Americans: The Impact of Desegregation

The current study sought to examine whether there were differences in the structure of specific cognitive abilities and their association with age and education in a sample of African American elders with two different early educational experiences. The study was conducted with a sample of 197 community dwelling older adults ranging in age from 50 to 79 years (mean age = 61.50 years, SD = 7.30 years). The sample included 79 individuals who attended a desegregated school at anytime during their formal education, while 118 participants completed their schooling without ever attending a desegregated school. Major results included: (1) typical patterns among cognitive abilities and age as well as years of education were found in the full sample of participants; (2) the pattern of age differences in cognition differed between the two groups. Regarding the latter, the desegregated sample exhibited significant negative age differences for some cognitive abilities, while the segregated group did not. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering the nature of the educational experience when examining cognitive aging in African American elders.     

Are apparent sex differences in mean IQ scores created in part by sample restriction and increased male variance?

This study investigated the possibility that apparent sex differences in IQ are at least partly created by the degree of sample restriction from the baseline population. We used a nationally representative sample, the 1970 British Cohort Study. Sample sizes varied from 6518 to 11,389 between data-collection sweeps. Principal components analysis of scores obtained on four cognitive tests administered at age 10 was used to obtain estimates that we name ‘IQ’. These age-10 scores were then used to estimate the sex differences at age 10, and also among participants in the two later waves, at age 26 and 30. At age 10, there was a small but significant advantage for boys (Cohen’s d = 0.081). Boys had greater variability in these IQ scores. We then investigated how this very small male advantage at 10 changed with sample restriction. We used the same IQs obtained at age 10, but considered only those subjects who returned for data-collection sweeps at ages 26 and 30 years. Subjects returning at age 26 and 30 were more likely to be females and to have higher age-10 IQ scores. Attrition at age 30 was 28% and the male advantage in IQ scores increased by 15%. Attrition at age 26 was 43% and the male advantage in IQ scores increased by 48%. The findings underline the importance of monitoring attrition in longitudinal studies, as well as emphasising the need for representative samples in studying sex differences in intelligence. A proportion of the apparent male advantage in general cognitive ability that has been reported by some researchers might be attributable to the combination of greater male variance in general cognitive ability and sample restriction, though this remains to be tested in a sample with an appropriate mental test battery.     

The Reliability,Validity, Discriminant and Predictive Properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SoPhI)

This paper reports on the psychometric properties of the Social Phobic Inventory (SoPhI) a 21-item scale that was designed to measure social anxiety according to the criteria of DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, APA (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder , 4th Edn., Washington). Factor analysis of the SoPhI using data from a clinical sample of respondents with social phobia revealed one factor which explained approximately 59% of variance and which demonstrated strong internal reliability ( f = 0.93). The SoPhI demonstrated concurrent validity with the SPAI ( r = 0.86) and convergent validity with the Fear of Negative Evaluations-Revised ( r = 0.68). The predictive utility of the scale was demonstrated in a sample of university students classified as extroverted, normal, shy/introverted, and phobic/withdrawn ( m 2 57%). Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) revealed that the combined university sample differed from the clinical sample on the summated scores on the SoPhI and that 43% ( m 2 ) of this difference was attributable to group membership. This figure rose to 58% attributable to group membership when these same groups were compared for differences on the 21 individual items. Scores of the SoPhI that are indicative of concern and of possible diagnostic criteria, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed.     

The Association Between Church Attendance and Psychological Health in Northern Ireland: A National Representative Survey Among Adults Allowing for Sex Differences and Denominational Difference

This study extends previous research concerning the association between religion and psychological health in six ways: (1) by focusing clearly on religious attendance (church attendance); (2) by employing a robust measure of psychological distress (GHQ-12); (3) by studying a highly religious culture (Northern Ireland); (4) by taking sex differences into account (male or female); (5) by taking denominational differences into account (Catholic or Protestant); (6) and by obtaining a national representative sample (N = 4,281 adults aged 16 and above). Results from a 2 (sex) by 2 (denomination) ANCOVA demonstrated that Catholics recorded significantly lower levels of psychological health compared to Protestants, and that females showed significantly lower levels of psychological health compared to males. In addition, females reported higher frequency of religious service attendance than males, and Catholics reported higher attendance rates than Protestants. A significant positive association was found between frequency of religious attendance and GHQ-12 scores, and this association was moderated by sex and denomination. In conclusion, the results suggest that there may be sex and denominational differences in further understanding the relationship between frequency of religious attendance and psychological health.     

Social skills training for juvenile delinquents

Twenty-seven incarcerated juvenile delinquents matched on the number of previous offenses, age, WISC-R IQ, and locus of control were assigned to a Social Skills. Discussion or Control group. Social skills training consisted of instruction, feedback, modeling, behavior rehearsal, social reinforcement and graduated homework assignments. All subjects were assessed before and after treatment on a variety of self-report, role-play and behavioral measures. Analyses of variance for difference scores indicated that the Social Skills group improved significantly more than the Discussion and Control groups, which did not differ. Appropriate interpersonal skills were learned, state anxiety was reduced, internal locus of control was increased, and significant shifts in adjustment to the institutional program were evidenced for the Social Skills group.     

The Performance of Hamsters in the Maze Situation Utilizing Gravitation and the Vestibular Sense as Motivation

The hypotheses of this study of sex differences on a measure of self-esteem are as follows: 1) the scales good, nice, generous, pleasant, dependable, honest, and active will group together to form the outer esteem dimension of the semantic differential; 2) the scales strong, leader, powerful, confident, curious, inventive, sharp, and active will group together to form the inner esteem dimension of the semantic differential; 3) males will score significantly higher than females on the inner esteem dimension of the semantic differential; 4) females will score significantly higher than males on the outer esteem dimension of the semantic differential; 5) there will be a significant difference between the scoring patterns of males and females on the two dimensions of the semantic differential after controlling for the effects of race and social desirability. The sample of 442 sixth through eighth grade students consisted of two subsamples made heterogeneous on race, geographic location, and type of school. The Franks-Marolla Self-Esteem Semantic Differential and the Lunneborg and Lunneborg Child's Social Desirability Scale were administered. The findings support each of the hypotheses and indicate that there is a significant difference between the sexes on the Franks-Marolla Semantic Differential Measure of Self-Esteem. It is concluded that additional research in self-esteem might specify the meaning of sex differences in esteem by measuring esteem relative to an individual's structural social positions rather than measuring esteem in the general and environmentally nonspecific contexts as advocated by some.     

Effect sizes and cut-off points: a meta-analytical review of burnout in latin American countries

Burnout is a highly prevalent globalized health issue that causes significant physical and psychological health problems. In Latin America research on this topic has increased in recent years, however there are no studies comparing results across countries, nor normative reference cut-offs. The present meta-analysis examines the intensity of burnout (emotional exhaustion, cynicism and personal accomplishment) in 58 adult nonclinical samples from 8 countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela). We found low intensity of burnout but there are significant differences between countries in emotional exhaustion explained by occupation and language. Social and human service professionals (police officers, social workers, public administration staff) are more exhausted than health professionals (physicians, nurses) or teachers. The samples with Portuguese language score higher in emotional exhaustion than Spanish, supporting the theory of cultural relativism. Demographics (sex, age) and study variables (sample size, instrument), were not found significant to predict burnout. The effect size and confidence intervals found are proposed as a useful baseline for research and medical diagnosis of burnout in Latin American countries.     

The Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor Structure, Reliability, and Validity

In this paper the refinement and psychometric properties of the Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) are described. Results from a sociodemographically diverse birth cohort sample of 1,235 parents of children between the ages of 12 and 36 months are presented. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the hypothesized Internalizing, Externalizing, Regulatory, and Competence domains as well as the 17 individual scales that comprise the ITSEA. Findings for 3 additional indices useful in identifying significant psychopathology are presented. Subgroup analyses revealed structural invariance and expected mean level differences across both child sex and 6-month age bands. Child sex differences emerged for some problem and most competence scales, with boys rated as higher on Activity–Impulsivity and girls rated higher on Anxiety and most Competence scales. All competence scores increased across age groups. Problem behaviors showed a more mixed developmental pattern. Test–retest and interrater reliability were acceptable. Associations between the ITSEA and independent evaluator ratings and parental ratings of child behavior problems, temperament, and parental distress support the validity of the instrument.     

Maturation of EEG power spectra in early adolescence: a longitudinal study

This study investigated the fine-grained development of the EEG power spectra in early adolescence, and the extent to which it is reflected in changes in peak frequency. It also sought to determine whether sex differences in the EEG power spectra reflect differential patterns of maturation. A group of 56 adolescents were tested at age 10 years and then at two further time-points approximately 18 months apart. The EEG was recorded during both eyes-closed and eyes-open conditions and Fourier transformed to provide estimates of absolute and relative spectral power at 0.5 Hz intervals from 0.5 to 40 Hz. The peak alpha frequency for each individual at each time-point was also determined for relative spectral power. Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis was used to determine the combination of electrodes and frequencies that showed developmental change, or differed between the sexes. As a function of age, absolute delta and theta frequencies power decreased, and relative alpha2 and beta frequencies increased, replicating the standard findings of a decrease in lower, and increase in higher, frequencies with age. A small but significant increase in peak alpha frequency with age was detected. Moreover PLS analysis performed with individual alpha frequencies aligned to 10 Hz suggested that the age-related increase seen in alpha2 relative power was driven by changes in the peak frequency. Although males demonstrated higher alpha power than females, there were no sex differences in peak frequency, suggesting that there may be more to sex differences in EEG power than simply different rates of maturation between the two sexes.     

Bender Gestalt test performance as a predictor of differential reading performance

Sixty Ss (two groups of second graders, with differential reading skills and average or above intelligence, matched with regard to CA, IQ, and sex) were compared on Bender test performance. No significant differences were found for rotations, integrations, perseverations, sex, or number of errors on Designs A through 8. Although significant differences were found between groups for both Bender composite scores (p = <.05) and distortion errors (p = <.01), there was no significant difference in the number of students in each group above and below the mean Bender score for that age group.

Poor Bender performance was found as often for good readers as for poor ones. This strongly suggests that Bender performance should be used with extreme caution in predicting or diagnosing poor reading performance.     

Pocket money: A study of economic education

Despite the fact that some work had been done on children's conceptions of economic affairs, very little work appears to have been done on children's use of money. This study set out to examine sex, age and class differences in 7–12-year-old children's pocket money/allowances. Males and females, from middle- and working-class backgrounds in three age groups (7/8, 9/10, 11/12), completed a questionnaire which sought to establish such things as the amount of pocket money children received; other sources of income; whether they were required to work for their pocket money; whether and how they were encouraged to save it, etc. The results showed that, whereas there were few sex or class differences, there were a large number of significant age differences. The results are discussed in terms of the children's socialization and experience of money. Limitations of this research and suggestions for further work in this field are noted.     

The sex by race interaction in cognitive measures

Data consisting of 79 cognitive measures from Project TALENT for 100,000 white and black high school students have been analyzed for possible race by sex interactions. Control variables included geographical area, grade in high school, and socio-economic class. Race by sex interactions are largest when socioeconomic class is controlled and are highly related to the size of the main effect of sex as well. White boys and girls differ more than black boys and girls whether the overall sex difference favors males or females. Sex by grade and, to a lesser extent, sex by area interactions were also moderately large and consistent with the size of the main effect of sex. Since there are no consistent relationships with other main effects, and since the measures producing sex differences also tend to produce the interactions, it is concluded that sex differences and the interactions with sex share the same causes. Differences between these results and those of Jensen are also discussed.