老年歧视的特点、机制与干预

目前在全球范围内普遍存在老年歧视和消极的老化态度。2~3岁的幼儿就已经具有了老化的消极刻板印象, 家庭、社会、媒体和图书资料是为人们提供消极老化态度的主要来源, 而缺少代际接触、缺乏对老化知识的了解是人们形成老年歧视的主要原因。老年歧视会影响个体的行为、自我老化接受度、心理健康状况、生活方式以及择业。了解老化知识信息、讨论老龄化问题, 以及与老年人直接接触等方法可以帮助人们改变老化消极刻板印象, 并且代际接触的质量比数量更重要。目前, 老年歧视的研究横向研究多, 纵向研究少; 特点描述、干预研究多, 机制研究较少; 研究方法多样, 测量工具不同, 导致研究结果不同, 各研究间难以进行比较, 如直接测量主观态度的老年歧视调查, 人们表现出更多的积极态度, 而采用间接方法测量时, 人们则表现出更多的消极态度。我国对老年歧视的研究有待进一步深入和扩展。     

An inconvenienced youth? Ageism and its potential intergenerational roots

Age is the only social category identifying subgroups that everyone may eventually join. Despite this and despite the well-known growth of the older population, age-based prejudice remains an understudied topic in social psychology. This article systematically reviews the literature on ageism, highlighting extant research on its consequences and theoretical perspectives on its causes. We then identify a crucial gap in the literature, potential intergenerational tensions, speculating how a growing-older population-and society's efforts to accommodate it-might stoke intergenerational fires, particularly among the younger generation. Presenting both sides of this incipient issue, we review relevant empirical work that introduces reasons for both optimism and pessimism concerning intergenerational relations within an aging society. We conclude by suggesting future avenues for ageism research, emphasizing the importance of understanding forthcoming intergenerational dynamics for the benefit of the field and broader society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Lay theories and ageist attitudes at work: Essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging,fixed mindsets,and cyclical perception of time are linked to ageist attitudes toward older workers

To resolve the problem of ageist attitudes in organizational contexts, the psychological processes that contribute to their endorsement must be investigated. We suggest that lay theories of aging (essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging, EBCA), fixed versus growth mindsets, and lay theories of time (LTT, perceptions of time as change versus. repetition) represent a set of beliefs linked to ageist attitudes toward older workers. We also propose that relationships between these beliefs and ageism are mediated by stereotypical perceptions of older workers. In a pilot study, we constructed a measure of ageist attitudes toward older workers (AATOW). In the main study, we surveyed 166 younger workers (18–30 years old, employed full-time), measuring EBCA, mindsets, LTT, age-related stereotypes, and AATOW. The results demonstrated that there were significant relationships between EBCA, fixed mindset, LTT, and ageist attitudes. The relationships between EBCA and ageism, and mindsets and ageism were mediated by perceptions of older workers as not adaptable, while the relationship between LTT and ageism was not mediated by age-related stereotypes. Implications for organizational efforts to nurture an age-inclusive intergenerational workforce are discussed.     

Automatically activated facets of ageism: Masked evaluative priming allows for a differentiation of age‐related prejudice

This study investigated the automatic activation of ageism by using a go/no‐go version of the masked evaluative priming task. Pictures of younger persons, of older persons in everyday contexts, and of older persons depicting age‐related conditions of decline were used as masked primes that preceded positive and negative target adjectives conveying either other‐relevant valence (e.g., just and mean) or possessor‐relevant valence (e.g., serene and lonely). The evaluative priming effect (denoting relative negativity of old‐everyday primes in comparison with younger primes) was significant, as hypothesized, only for possessor‐relevant targets. It was not moderated by explicit ageism. A second priming index (denoting relative negativity of old‐decline primes in comparison with old‐everyday primes) predicted, however, explicit ageism. Again, this result was, as expected, constrained to the index based on possessor‐relevant targets. This study provides further evidence that prejudice in terms of automatic evaluations of social stimuli can be more fine grained beyond a mere one‐dimensional positive–negative differentiation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The interaction between aging and death anxieties predicts ageism

While aging anxiety is associated with the threat of deterioration that leads to death, death anxiety is related to the threat of non-existence and to fears from an unknown afterlife, and both anxieties can lead to ageism. The current study examined the unexplored relationship between these two existential anxieties and ageism. Measures of aging and death anxieties, ageism (in the form of ageist attitudes), and various measures of physical health were collected from 1073 older adults at the age range of 50–86. When death anxiety was low, aging anxiety was positively related to ageism, but when aging anxiety was low, death anxiety was positively related to ageism. The interaction between both anxieties and ageism remained significant after controlling for a myriad of background characteristics and physical health measures. These findings, which point at the distinctive and complementary roles that both anxieties have in connecting between one another and ageist attitudes, are discussed in light of theories on ageism.     

Personal and intergenerational narratives in relation to adolescents' well-being

Narratives of the self are embedded within families in which narrative interaction is a common practice. Especially in adolescence, when issues of identity and emotional regulation become key, narratives provide frameworks for understating self and emotion. The authors' research on family narratives suggests that adolescents' personal narratives are at least partly shaped by intergenerational narratives about their parents' childhoods. Both personal and intergenerational narratives emerge frequently in typical family dinner conversations, and these narratives reflect gendered ways of being in the world. Adolescents who tell intergenerational narratives that are rich in intergenerational connections and perspective-taking show higher levels of well-being. These findings suggest that individual narrative selves are created within families and across generations.     

Disabilities and aging

Both older persons and those who havedisabilities can encounter discrimination whenthey seek medical care. Just as ageism andstereotypes about older persons mayinappropriately limit medical care for theelderly, limits may be placed on medical carefor those who are disabled simply because ofthe presence of a disability. At the sametime death is the natural end of the lifespanfor all individuals and there are situationswhen aggressive medical care is not indicated. It is not right to always insist on ``doingeverything' for a person even if that personmay be at risk otherwise for discrimination. Using the example of the elderly, this paperexamines the risks of discrimination and thedangers of overtreatment in caring for olderpersons and suggests parallels in theappropriate care of those who havedisabilities. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A Review of “Divorce: Causes and Consequences”

Substance abuse affects millions of adults each year, of whom one in five are older adults. Given pervasive stereotypes about later life and the ways in which older persons internalize such messages, dealing with and using previous work on substance abuse, the social breakdown syndrome, and narrative therapy, we describe the importance of and ways for marriage and family therapists to work with older persons facing the compounding experiences of ageism and substance abuse. The purpose of this study was to: 1) identify the prevalence of substance abuse among those 65 and older; 2) document and emphasize the unique challenges of addressing this issue among those 65 and older; and 3) provide an application of the narrative approach to working with older persons presenting with substance abuse.     

Intergenerational Living and Worship:

There are several conceptual and relational shifts requircd when "intergenerational," the dynamics of intentional community and liturgy, as the work of the people, are brought together. The Caring Community Project is a training resource to assist congregations in forming intentional, intergenerational communities. Shared power, authority, and responsibility expressed through the discipline of the steps of the liturgy, as described briefly in this paper, unfold a dynamic transforming process of change. Older persons are key advocates for this ministry and major beneficiaries of its care and development.     

Death as a Factor in Understanding Modern Attitudes Toward the Aging:

This article challenges the adequacy of the eight primary theories that are used to analyze and account for what happens to persons in contemporary U.S. culture during the aging process. The theory presented in this article, Symbolization-Avoidance Theory, draws its clue from contrasting attitudes toward death during several periods in this country's history. The author suggests that there is a direct correlation between the modern avoidanceldenial of death through "removal," and the image of elders as symbolic reminders of death, resulting in their rejection/departmentalization through "invisibility." This phenomenon, destined to become a growlng dynamic in the future, is the dynamic known as "ageism."     

Ageism in undergraduate psychology texts

A sample of 139 texts written over the past 40 years was analyzed for evidence of ageism (i.e., lack of attention to the psychology of later life and stereotyping of older adults). More recent texts cover the topic more comprehensively than in the past, but this coverage is limited in depth. Although textbook authors appear to be trying to communicate a positive message about aging and older persons, their efforts are compromised by ambivalence in the form of contradictory statements about the nature of the aging process. There is an unfortunate condensation of sources in recent texts, which draw heavily from a small cluster of authorities. Implications of these findings for the larger textbook enterprise are discussed.     

The cognitive tenacity of self-directed ageism

Ageism refers to prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s age. When ageism is directed at older people, it is unique in two ways: it is socially condoned in a manner that other types of prejudice are not, and the animus is eventually self-directed. Of central interest here is why ageism becomes self-directed in late adulthood, despite its potentially harmful personal costs. We present a cognitive model in which negative ageist beliefs become increasingly accessible and difficult to eliminate owing to broader developmental shifts in mentation. Given that these effects are contingent on our social environment, systemic changes in societal conceptions of age and aging are needed if we are to reduce vulnerability to self-directed ageism.     

Ageism and psychological testing with elderly immigrant women

The focus on aging and ageism are fairly recent in psychology. Nevertheless, it is clear that these processes are of particular interest to many psychologists involved in psychological assessment, since both of these affect the content and the process of the assessment. In the present paper some key issues are raised regarding ageism and stereotypes of the aging held by mental health professionals and psychologists in particular. On the assumption that psychological testing with the aging is required to achieve accurate diagnoses and therapeutic interventions, some concerns about how psychological testing with the aging should proceed is presented.     

The developmental course of Personal Authority in the Family System

The present study examined the differences in participants' intergenerational family relationships across the following three age/stage groups based on Williamson's (1991) theory of Personal Authority in the Family System (PAFS) and adult developmental theory (Levinson, 1986): ages 18-23, 24-29, and 30-45. The most noteworthy variables were intergenerational intimacy and intimidation with mothers and fathers, with significant but less contribution by intergenerational triangulation with fathers. Results indicated that each successively older group reported significantly less intimacy and less intimidation with each parent, and less triangulation with fathers than the previous younger group. Small gender differences were also present, but without an interaction with age/stage groups. Females reported slightly healthier intergenerational relationships with parents than did males. Finally, implications for clinical practice are presented.     

Ageism and death: effects of mortality salience and perceived similarity to elders on reactions to elderly people

The present research investigated the hypotheses that elderly people can be reminders of our mortality and that concerns about our own mortality can therefore instigate ageism. In Study 1, college-age participants who saw photos of two elderly people subsequently showed more death accessibility than participants who saw photos of only younger people. In Study 2, making mortality salient for participants increased distancing from the average elderly person and decreased perceptions that the average elderly person possesses favorable attitudes. Mortality salience did not affect ratings of teenagers. In Study 3, these mortality salience effects were moderated by prior reported similarity to elderly people. Distancing from, and derogation of, elderly people after mortality salience occurred only in participants who, weeks before the study, rated their personalities as relatively similar to the average elderly person's. Discussion addresses distinguishing ageism from other forms of prejudice, as well as possibilities for reducing ageism.     

Professional Counselors’ Interest in Counseling Older Adults

The authors surveyed professional counselors (N = 956) to examine self‐efficacy in counseling older adults, contact with older adults, and ageism as related to their interest in working with older adults. Higher self‐efficacy, contact, and positive ageism predicted increased interest. These results and implications for counseling older adults are discussed.     

Healing Intergenerational Wounds: An Integrative Relational–Neurobiological Approach

Old resentments and unfinished business from the family of origin can constrain adults in current relationships with parents or siblings and negatively affect relationships with partners or children. This article explores how old wounds get reactivated in current relationships and contribute to the intergenerational transmission of painful legacies and trauma. Building on intergenerational family theory and interpersonal neurobiology, the dynamics of reactivity and pathways for growth are explored. While much of the time the human brain is on autopilot, driven by habits and emotional reactivity, we are capable of bringing prefrontal thoughtfulness and choice to close relationships. Rather than being victims of parents or our past, we can become authors of our own relational life. Interventions are offered to help adult clients “wake from the spell of childhood,” heal intergenerational wounds, and “grow up” relationships with family of origin. The damage caused by parent‐blaming in therapy is explored and contrasted with Ivan Boszormenyi‐Nagy's emphasis on rejunctive action and cultivating resources of trustworthiness in intergenerational relationships. The family is considered both in its cultural context—including stressors and resources for resilience—and in its life cycle context. Aging in the intergenerational family is discussed, focusing on ways adult children and their parents can grow and flourish with the challenges at this time of life. Throughout, the theme of relational ethics—how we can live according to our values and “reach for our best self” in intergenerational relationships—informs the discussion.     

Are Asian cultures really less ageist than Western ones? It depends on the questions asked

Ageism is an increasing concern in ageing populations such as Asia and Europe. A prevalent assumption in psychology is that Eastern cultures may be less prone to ageism because of norms and values that honour and respect elders. Yet, evidence for this culture hypothesis is inconclusive. The current study examines this issue by comparing attitudes towards older people in an Eastern and Western samples of 184 young people from the UK and 249 from Taiwan. Attitudes to old age were measured both as meta‐perceptions (the perceived normative context) and personal attitudes in regard to the cognitive, affective and behavioural components of ageism. Consistent with the culture hypothesis, meta‐perceptions about competence and admiration were more positive in Taiwan than in the UK, yet other meta‐perceptions were more negative pointing to the existence of old age subtypes. Personal attitudes about older people in regard to the affective and behavioural, but not the cognitive component, were more negative in Taiwan than in the UK. Thus, cultural differences in ageism are more nuanced than suggested by previous research. The importance of distinguishing between the normative context and personal attitudes as well as the different components of ageism is highlighted by the present findings.     

Racial Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Personnel: Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma as a Theoretical Lens

Various theorists have explored how intergenerational transmission of trauma impacts minority groups. Intergenerational trauma theories suggest that trauma(s) endured by a community have long-standing effects that can be passed on through generations. However, much of the research has focused on indigenous populations or Holocaust survivors despite the historical experiences of the African American community. The minority stress model adds support to intergenerational trauma theories, in that racial minority groups might suffer worse health due to a variety of stressors. Racial minorities are also at greater risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Within military populations, PTSD is one of many mental health issues and has been labeled one of the signature injuries of the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) criteria for PTSD do not take into account the effects of intergenerational trauma, discrimination, or racism. This article proposes that intergenerational trauma theories and the minority stress model provide explanations for why many studies have found that African American military personnel have higher rates of PTSD compared to their White peers. Indeed, African American military personnel with PTSD might be better understood through more culturally inclusive frameworks (e.g., complex trauma, race-based traumatic stress), because the stressors they experience as racial minorities might exacerbate or lead to symptoms of PTSD.