Philipp of Hesse as an Example of Princely Reformation A Contribution to Reformation Studies

Abstract

This article deals with Landgrave Philipp of Hesse as an example of princely Reformation. It shows the interconnectedness of theological convictions and political policy in his undertakings. Scripture is paramount as the definitive criterion in his personal Reformation identity and in his theological engagement. It also comes to form the basis for the Reformation restructuring of his territory as can be seen in the founding of the University of Marburg as an alternative model to Wittenberg and of the territorial hospitals, his treatment of Jews and Anabaptists or his understanding of marriage. The article presents this prince as an independent type of theologian and Reformer. It shows the pluriform and processual nature of the Reformation and demonstrates the need for a re-evaluation of the relationship between princely, communal, and urban Reformations.     

Mineral Fumes and Mining Spirits: Popular Beliefs in the Sarepta of Johann Mathesius (1504-1565)

Abstract

The Reformation preacher in Germany, Johann Mathesius, was a mediator between learned and popular cultures in mining. His collection of sermons described a mental world rich in folk beliefs that were integrated into a broader mining culture. Reformation historians have charted the difficulties and limitations of bringing Lutheran teaching to mining towns, but they have stopped short of analyzing the mentality of miners themselves. In addition to their obvious place in Reformation history, Mathesius's sermons are equally relevant to the history of science. They support the recent argument that early-modern craftsmen possessed theory. Three issues that confronted Mathesius with long-standing folk beliefs and practices were prospecting, mine surveying, and the generation of metals. Mathesius handled these issues by integrating Christian theology and learned theory with select popular beliefs and practices.

Though I am but half a miner, from early on I have had a particular affinity for my old countryman, the mining preacher Johann Mathesius of Joachimstal, and that which he worshipped will remain dear to me to the very end.¹     

The Early Influence of Humanism on Balthasar Hubmaier (1485–1528) During His University Studies

ABSTRACT

Historians have long accepted the influence of humanism on Anabaptist origins. The emphasis on text-based support of early reforms and critiques of the Catholic Church characterize the brand of humanism in northern Europe and the Protestant Reformation. However, little attention has been given to the precise dynamics, networks, and mechanisms exposing early Anabaptists to humanism years before they even began to consider a more drastic reformation of the Church. As the martyred Balthasar Hubmaier was a central figure and the only university doctor of the early Radical Reformation, this article will study the personal, textual, and curricular components of his academic career at the universities of Freiburg-im-Breisgau and Ingolstadt; it is important for revealing a commitment to humanism that is deeper than was previously thought. It throws light on how the New Learning affected some Anabaptists, which humanists influenced their radical reforms, and which academic disciplines inspired their reforming methodologies.     

‘Between the bridge and the brook’

Abstract

That suicide was a damnable sin in Reformation England has been emphasized so far in the historiography of self-killing, but in practice the clergy were equivocal over the question of whether all self-killers were damned. This article re-examines English Protestant beliefs about suicide and salvation from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. It suggests that clerical statements about the damnableness of suicide need to be understood in the context of the threat posed by Stoic philosophy. Religious writers rejected the notion of noble suicide and reiterated Augustinian theology that premeditated self-killing was a form of murder. However, the harsh rhetoric was mitigated by a number of factors that brought into question the idea that all suicides were destined for Hell. These included changing medical opinion about mental states, evidence of the good character of many suicides, belief in the overpowering influence of demonic forces and basic Christian charity and compassion.     

Editorial

Abstract

This essay takes a critical view of conventionally subdividing the span between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries into periods. It queries terms like ‘Middle Ages’, ‘late Middle Ages’, ‘Renaissance’, ‘Reformation’, ‘pre-modern’, ‘early modern’, and ‘modern period.’ These macro-historical constructs are misleading, it argues, for they create the illusion of European history as a succession of relatively uniform eras separated by clear breaks, revealing a purposeful, linear ‘development’ connecting medieval premodernity with Enlightenment modernity. It is sensible to contrast the Reformation with the previous Church, theology, and piety. However, it is illadvised to interpret this religious ‘system break’ as a change of eras beyond question. The Reformation sustained a pre-existing momentum of change, but also left much culture unaltered. Accordingly, it was neither medieval nor early modern, nor an independent period sandwiched between medieval and modern periods. Instead, it was a far-reaching reconfiguration of parts of the Western Church between 1520 and 1560 that was both deeply rooted in the past and pointing to the future.     

Evangelical ‘Enterluders’: Patronage and Playing in Reformation England

Abstract

This paper underscores the propagandist aspects of Protestant players by examining the broader patterns emerging from the University of Toronto's Records of Early English Drama project (REED). While previous scholarship has noted the wealth of anecdotal evidence pointing to drama as a mechanism for religious change, evidence emerging from the REED material suggests that the use of interludes by the evangelical establishment was more extensive and programmatic than previously thought. A survey of every patron of drama in the Reformation period indicates that those most active in promoting the evangelical cause also sponsored the most active theatre companies. The touring activities of evangelical companies mirrored the progress of the Reformation in England. During periods of Reformation advance, travelling players flourished; while payments to companies all but disappeared during Mary Tudor's reign. The content of drama remained largely religious for most of the period, and there is little reason to doubt the use of printed polemical plays by a whole host of Protestant players to propagate the new gospel.     

Productive Misunderstanding in the Early Reformation Revisited: The Case of Lazarus Spengler's A Consoling Christian Instruction and Medicine in All Adversities (1521)

Abstract

This article revisits Bernd Moeller's concept of ‘productive misunderstanding’ as a way of explaining the early appeal and success of the Reformation among some of Luther's most important supporters. It does so through a case study of a consolation pamphlet by the secretary of Nuremberg City Council, Lazarus Spengler, whom Luther credited with planting the evangelical faith in this prominent imperial city. Spengler was one of the Wittenberg reformer's most important lay supporters: he authored the earliest pro-Luther lay pamphlet and his name was subsequently appended to the papal bull Exsurge Domine. However, in his consolation pamphlet Spengler espoused a view of suffering that Luther had firmly rejected because it contradicted his evangelical soteriology. This important difference suggests that while Spengler did a great deal to promote Luther's cause, and at great personal risk, he acted on the basis of an incorrect understanding of the Wittenberg reformer's theology, at least in the late 1510s and early 1520s. This article explores the reasons for Spengler's productive misunderstanding and suggests that it was likely shared by other evangelical burghers. By examining Moeller's concept from a novel vantage point, that of suffering and consolation, this article seeks to shed new light on the reception of Luther's ideas in the early German Reformation.     

In the Triune Name: Some Aspects of Baptismal Practice in Early Reformed Churches

Abstract

Within the wider Reformation in the sixteenth century, liturgical development of the early Reformed tradition saw a major departure from the rites of the medieval Catholic church including those for baptism. Part of this shift was determined by the spatial setting for baptism as well as by differences in the form of water container used for the rite. This article explores some of the baptismal practices that developed in early Reformed churches in light of such factors, and in relation to the understanding of the notion of adiaphora. After a brief reflection on the variety of ritual usage, the study examines the setting for baptism at the heart of the worshipping community along with the three types of water container used at the critical moment of baptism: the font, the ewer, and the basin. It concludes by noting that such diversity is characteristic of the multi-stranded Reformed tradition.     

The First Latin Book of Common Prayer: English Reformation in a Continental Perspective

Abstract

The Ordinatio ecclesiae (1551) of Alexander Alesius is a little-known Latin translation of the 1549 Book of Common Prayer. Alesius had been resident in England in the 1530s and had kept in touch with his English friends when he returned to the continent, becoming professor of theology at Leipzig. The Ordinatio ecclesiae is, in many ways, a baffling document since it is not a rigid translation of Cranmer's rite. Instead, it contains passages which are both more Roman and more evangelical than the English liturgy. Following a detailed comparison of the English and Latin versions, the author attempts to place the Ordinatio ecclesiae in the context of Reformation politics on the continent during the years between the ‘Augsburg Interim’ and the resumption of the Council of Trent. He finds that the Latin Prayer book was intended to publicize Cranmer's reform measures as an example of a territorial Reformation in order to add a substantial voice to the chorus of evangelical churches calling for a free General Council. The conservative nature of the first Book of Common Prayer seemed ideally suited to further dialogue between evangelicals and reform-minded Catholics, but also to appealing for reconciliation and unity among Lutheran theologians in Saxony who had become divided on the issue of the Interim.     

Reformation

Abstract

Thomas Becon (1512/13–1567), one of the early English Reformers, is known for his dialogues, prayers, and Catechism. While the word ‘reformation’ occurs rarely in his works, the notion itself extends further than Church structures and theology. Becon’s approach to reformation does not envision the Church as an object of faith or an ecclesiastical construct to be refurbished. His style reveals undertones that convey a somewhat deeper flavour. Beside his Nicene definition of the Church, his idea of reformation is grounded in subliminal assumptions which we propose to elucidate. The Reformation as a return to a model of ideal Church organization or returning to the supposedly normative Apostolic Church is more like the expression or resurgence of a myth akin to resurrection.     

Cantus Planus in the Reformation

Abstract

This essay explores the reform of cantus planus (the medieval practice of plainchant) which lies at the core of the liturgical and musical Reformation though has not yet received due attention. The Renaissance humanists’ critique of cantus planus is based on their conception of ancient ecclesiastical chant built upon the union of music and speech, viz., the ‘modulated recitation‘. The syllabic declamation and the quantitative metres of ancient Greek music were of essential importance to the humanists’ reforming programme of cantus planus. This centred on the matter of the intelligibility of the text in liturgical music. The essay illustrates the humanist characteristic of the Reformation chants, examining ways in which the classical paradigm of music was reconfigured in the new chant compositions.     

Flight from persecution and the honour of God in the theology of Peter Martyr Vermigli

Abstract

This article explores the writings of Peter Martyr Vermigli dealing with the matter of flight from persecution in which he had a personal interest and involvement. After review of the literature and comparison with other Reformation theologians, Vermigli’s thought is examined in detail. This examination clarifies Vermigli’s reasoning, but also evaluates it in relation to his person to help understand the practical import of his thought.     

Luther and the Reformation as Perceived in Rome: Methods of Spiritual Reform and Sustaining Catholic Orthodoxy

ABSTRACT

Rome’s handling of the Reformation in northern Europe was determined by specific circumstances in which the Italian situation differed from that north of the Alps. This article argues chiefly that the Roman theologians’ perception of the Protestant Reformation – especially on ecclesiological questions – depended decisively on their experience of the Fifth Lateran Council (1512–1517). When they encountered Luther’s writings or Luther in person, the friar from Wittenberg is often described in a disrespectful manner derived from common national stereotypes. Notwithstanding, in one form or other Luther’s writings were circulated, published and translated in Italy where they appear to have found a sympathetic audience in some quarters. Italian Luther synpathizers did not constitute a nationwide network, but rather met clandestinely in small circles, making their detection a challenge. The prosecution of heresy was ultimately the task of the all-powerful Roman Inquisition, founded in 1542 after the Regensburg reunion colloquy had failed.     

Eucharistic sacrifice and patristic tradition in the theology of Martin Bucer 1534–1546

Abstract

As scholars continue to examine the variety and complexity of religious life in early modern England, we recognize that figures such as George Herbert resist our efforts to place them in convenient categories. However, we can account for this resistance by comparing Herbert's poetry to the Lutheran theologian Johann Gerhard's popular devotions of the same period. An intertextual study of Herbert's poems and Gerhard's devotional classic reveals their shared emphasis on baptism as an essential defining element of the Christian's life within the communion of saints. This emphasis synthesizes the tradition and sacramental piety of the old faith with the emphasis on the efficacy of the biblical word that marks the new faith of the Reformation and, at the same time, provides an irenic foundation for their interaction with the Church in early modern England.     

A Rose Blooms in the Winter: The Tradition of the Hortus Conclusus and its Significance as a Devotional Emblem

The hortus conclusus, or the “garden enclosed,” is a motif of biblical origin that images the Virgin Mary as a cloistered garden. Gaining popularity in the early medieval period, the Marian hortus conclusus remained the property of the Catholic church after the Reformation. There it briefly thrived, reaching its apogee in the early modern period as the eponymous subject of Henry Hawkins’ emblem book, Partheneia Sacra. The Virgin in (and as) the garden still lives a half‐life today, continuing to appear without our recognizing it in medieval and Renaissance artwork, in hymns, in the names of flowers, and in prayers. Where it is known, the Marian hortus conclusus is usually perceived as a Catholic object of adoration, but its enduring nature suggests that it holds promise as a catholic subject of devotion as well.     

Zwingli,Froschauer, and the Word of God in Print

Abstract

Protestant minister Huldrych Zwingli and book printer Christopher Froschauer joined together to foster the Reformation in German Switzerland. Guided by a common vision for the dissemination of the Word of God in print, they forged a partnership that addressed evangelical concerns to the people of the Swiss Confederation and culminated in the publication of the Zurich Bible.     

Bucer's Views on Ecclesiastical Property in the Light of Civil and Canon Law

Abstract

The issue of church property is a crucial one in the history of the sixteenth-century Reformation. In support of his views, Bucer could cite Holy Scripture, Roman Law and the Corpus Iuris Canonici, although Bucer felt that priority could be assigned to those laws that can be inferred from Holy Scripture. This article looks at four themes in the debate on ecclesiastical goods as they concern Martin Bucer: the differing ways in which Protestant estates dealt with the matter; the PR around such actions; resistance to the Emperor; and the issue of ecclesiastical estates ruled by prince-prelates.     

Luther,Calvin and Musculus on Abraham's Trial: Exegetical History and the Transformation of Genesis 22

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to examine the exegetical history of Genesis 22, and particularly the contributions of Martin Luther, John Calvin and Wolfgang Musculus to that history. It focuses on a specific issue with which these, and other, interpreters grappled, namely, the issue of how one ought to understand the character of Abraham's trial. The article maps out different answers given to this question from Philo to the Reformation towards the end of demonstrating the spirited creativity of the aforementioned trio of interpreters.     

Martin Bucer and Church Renewal in Europe

Abstract

Owing to his many personal contacts and tireless activity as a letter writer, Bucer presided over an extensive network of correspondents and ideas in Europe. However, Bucer differs from other great Reformation figures in so far as he considered his connections with the churches in Europe to be a theological mission. Each of these churches was expected to live in community with the others and to inform them of successes, failures and difficulties, thereby sharing or receiving inspiration for the work of Church renewal. At the centre of Bucer's efforts stands the proclamation of the lordship of Christ. The discursive nature of this theology enabled Bucer to tolerate great religious diversity. This flexibility ended where a church—such as the Roman church—or the political power—such as Emperor Charles V after the collapse of the Schmalkaldic League—dictated a single form of Christian belief. In this instance Bucer, in the name of the lordship of Christ, issued a summons to spiritual and religious resistance.