Reformation

Abstract

Thomas Becon (1512/13–1567), one of the early English Reformers, is known for his dialogues, prayers, and Catechism. While the word ‘reformation’ occurs rarely in his works, the notion itself extends further than Church structures and theology. Becon’s approach to reformation does not envision the Church as an object of faith or an ecclesiastical construct to be refurbished. His style reveals undertones that convey a somewhat deeper flavour. Beside his Nicene definition of the Church, his idea of reformation is grounded in subliminal assumptions which we propose to elucidate. The Reformation as a return to a model of ideal Church organization or returning to the supposedly normative Apostolic Church is more like the expression or resurgence of a myth akin to resurrection.     

Reformation Rhetoric: The Genealogye of Heresye

Abstract

The following article is drawn from a thesis investigating early print culture during the Reformation in England. It is previously unpublished and discusses Reformation rhetoric in light of the impact of the printing press and the nature of early printed propaganda. A text from this period is edited and presented with full notes to illuminate the nature, tone and style of quickly-assembled and distributed Reformation rhetoric.     

Productive Misunderstanding in the Early Reformation Revisited: The Case of Lazarus Spengler's A Consoling Christian Instruction and Medicine in All Adversities (1521)

Abstract

This article revisits Bernd Moeller's concept of ‘productive misunderstanding’ as a way of explaining the early appeal and success of the Reformation among some of Luther's most important supporters. It does so through a case study of a consolation pamphlet by the secretary of Nuremberg City Council, Lazarus Spengler, whom Luther credited with planting the evangelical faith in this prominent imperial city. Spengler was one of the Wittenberg reformer's most important lay supporters: he authored the earliest pro-Luther lay pamphlet and his name was subsequently appended to the papal bull Exsurge Domine. However, in his consolation pamphlet Spengler espoused a view of suffering that Luther had firmly rejected because it contradicted his evangelical soteriology. This important difference suggests that while Spengler did a great deal to promote Luther's cause, and at great personal risk, he acted on the basis of an incorrect understanding of the Wittenberg reformer's theology, at least in the late 1510s and early 1520s. This article explores the reasons for Spengler's productive misunderstanding and suggests that it was likely shared by other evangelical burghers. By examining Moeller's concept from a novel vantage point, that of suffering and consolation, this article seeks to shed new light on the reception of Luther's ideas in the early German Reformation.     

The conciliar intent of Richard Hooker’s theological hermeneutic

Abstract

Recent research has sought to resolve the question of Richard Hooker’s theological relationship to the Reformation by identifying a hermeneutical framework that supports and guides his work as a whole. Two proposals are noteworthy: Torrance Kirby’s thesis on Hooker’s alignment with the Continental reformers and William Haugaard’s thesis on Hooker’s role in the development of ‘Anglicanism.’ This paper holds that these proposals should be understood within the context of Hooker’s conciliar intent. With a focus primarily on the preface to the Lawes, it is suggested that Hooker’s conciliar intent is motivated by the theological and ecclesial principles found in the premise, namely, the connection between the divine peace and order of 1 Corinthians 14:33 and the Council of Jerusalem. In clarifying the correlation of these two principles, the article asserts that the priorities of Hooker’s preface are first, to identify the hermeneutical crisis of his day as the crisis over the public criteria of Christian truth, and then to respond to this crisis by connecting spiritual discernment amidst controversy to conciliar judgment. Accordingly, ecumenical implications rather than doctrinal demarcation appear as central to Hooker’s theological project.     

The ecumenical commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the Reformation in Western Europe

This article explores why the Lutheran/Roman Catholic commemoration of the Reformation in 2017 is an ecumenical challenge par excellence. In particular it contrasts the context of the 2017 commemoration with that of previous centenaries and goes more deeply into this by analysing the dialectics of centenaries both in general and with respect to this very special centenary. It also describes major changes in the relationship between Protestants and Catholics, presenting other main aspects of the new context in which that commemoration is taking place in 2017, and addressing different aspects of commemoration. It offers an analysis of how the Catholic/Lutheran Commission on Unity overcame the hindrances to a common commemoration and celebration in its document ‘From Conflict to Communion’, opening the way for a twofold commemoration, both in joy and gratitude, and in lament and confession of guilt. The article also focuses on five ecumenical imperatives which this document offers, not only looking back, but also looking forward, committing Catholics and Protestants to continue their way from conflict to communion. It concludes by describing the highly remarkable service of Common Prayer, which took place in Lund Cathedral, with Pope Francis, for which the above document prepared the way and formed the basis. It becomes clear how theological preparation and the Common Prayer in Lund concurred in making possible a historic ecumenical commemoration and celebration of the Reformation.     

The Protestant Reformation in the Low Countries: Developments in Twentieth-Century Historiography

Abstract

The twentieth-century historiography of the Protestant Reformation in the Netherlands (1520-1620) reflects four major shifts in approach: from a partisan or compartmentalized to a neutral and from a chiefly theological to an integrated approach, from a national to an international perspective, and from a focus on the national to one on the local and regional level. Moreover, the increasing multidisciplinarity within the field has resulted in a broadening of the range of sources and a discussion on the academic position of church history. These shifts mirror contemporary socio-cultural changes, such as depillarization, ecumenism, and internationalization. The concept developed by Juliaan Woltjer (1962) of a large and heterogenuous middle group of ‘Protestantizing’ Catholics between small groups of fervent Protestants and conservative Catholics caused a watershed in the research. These moderate Catholics proved a significant factor in local politics, depending on the extent to which they were loyal to the church leaders or allowed themselves to be driven into the arms of the Protestants by the unbending authorities. Woltjer initiated ongoing research into the interaction between church and state and into the fundamental multiformity and the ‘fourth stream’ in the Dutch Reformation: the amalgam of spiritualist objectors to institutionalized religiosity.     

From the Historical Reformation to the “Digital Reformation”

This article analyzes the challenges presented for contemporary theological thinking by the current shifts in communication, starting from the concept of a “digital reformation” as a counterpart to the theological revolution that occurred with the historical Reformation. It goes on to consider how processes of communication on the Internet require us to rethink certain theological categories – from the new and renewed ways of constituting and manifesting theological knowledge within the digital environment through the emergence of new loci, subjects, and theological syntheses. We conclude that the challenges of contemporary digital culture and the need for a connected theology mean that theology, as a field of knowledge, requires a new theological synthesis.     

The Making of the Reformation. The Early Urban Reformation Between Continuity and Change

While recent scholarship has highlighted various theological, social, and cultural continuities from the Middle Ages to the Reformation, the emergence of early urban Reformations still seems surprising and sudden. Focusing on the case of the electoral city of Wittenberg, this paper discusses elements of continuity and change in the early urban Reformation. It argues that the emergence of the Reformation can only be understood within the long-term social and political contexts of the city’s history. The historical record indicates that the negotiation of religious authority was a continuous theme expressed in repeated social and political conflicts; attitudes and mindsets changed only gradually, creating a sense of cultural continuity that contradicts the traditional idea of violent, rapid change. The narrative of change emerged only later as a result of archiving and collecting strategies, which shaped the collective memory and historical knowledge of subsequent generations.     

The English Reformation in Wittenberg: Luther and Melanchthon’s Engagement with Religious Change in England 1521–1560*

ABSTRACT

Exploring the reception in Wittenberg of the historiographically often puzzling English Reformation, this article examines Luther’s and Melanchthon’s reactions in their correspondence. Relationships between Henry VIII and the Wittenberg Reformers deepened with an English embassy, led by Edward Foxe, to the Schmalkaldic League. The delegation was based in Wittenberg 1537–38; German deputations were in England in 1538 and 1539 (the year of the conservative Act of Six Articles). The Reformers’ responses show good general knowledge of events in England. Although Wittenberg had hoped for English conversion, Henrician theological ambiguity impeded negotiations with the League. The executions of Thomas More, Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell caused the Wittenbergers to regard Henry with scepticism. Finally, Melanchthon's relationships to England after the deaths of Luther and Henry VIII are discussed. Developments under Edward VI made the English Reformation recognizable as part of the wider movement, and Melanchthon advised that English exiles in Germany should be treated as fellow-believers.     

Jean-Luc Marion: the reinscription of heteronormativity into postmodern theology

ABSTRACT

Since the “theological turn” in continental philosophy, theologians have regularly turned to phenomenology as an authentic opening to a new mode of theological discourse. Yet, when these theo-phenomenological discourses turn to the questions of sexuality, gender, and love they often fail to live up to the radical opening promised by this turn. Taken as a case study, the work of Jean-Luc Marion is emblematic of this failure. While many of his insights might offer new openings for theological thought, his phenomenological speculations nonetheless often merely serve to re-inscribe a traditional, even reactionary heteronormativity into the heart of postmodern theological thought. In fact, it is not uncommon to catch his work offering a denigration of the body, presupposing a determinately male subject, and foreclosing the very possibility of non-heterosexual love. This critical examination of Marion’s account of sexuality shows that even the most radical phenomenological theology needs the ideological interruption of queer theory.     

Eve in early Reformation exegesis: the case of Iohannes Oecolampadius

Abstract

Iohannes Oecolampadius stood at the forefront of the Reformation in Basel. He not only worked tirelessly for the reform of the city's churches, but also authored pioneering evangelical works of theology and exegesis. The interpretation of Eve found in his late lectures on Genesis showcases both a new emphasis on Eve's goodness and original equality with Adam, as well as a parallel insistence on her subordination to her husband after the Fall. His conception of husband and wife as partners of equal dignity on the path toward salvation moves in the direction of companionate marriage, but it stops short of calling for women's equality in the public sphere.     

Martin Bucer and Church Renewal in Europe

Abstract

Owing to his many personal contacts and tireless activity as a letter writer, Bucer presided over an extensive network of correspondents and ideas in Europe. However, Bucer differs from other great Reformation figures in so far as he considered his connections with the churches in Europe to be a theological mission. Each of these churches was expected to live in community with the others and to inform them of successes, failures and difficulties, thereby sharing or receiving inspiration for the work of Church renewal. At the centre of Bucer's efforts stands the proclamation of the lordship of Christ. The discursive nature of this theology enabled Bucer to tolerate great religious diversity. This flexibility ended where a church—such as the Roman church—or the political power—such as Emperor Charles V after the collapse of the Schmalkaldic League—dictated a single form of Christian belief. In this instance Bucer, in the name of the lordship of Christ, issued a summons to spiritual and religious resistance.     

The Trinity in Qur’anic Idiom: Q 4.171 and the Christian Arabic Presentation of the Trinity as God,his Word,and his Spirit

ABSTRACT

Since the early centuries of Islam, the Qur’an’s deep imprint on Arabophone Christians has been evident, not only in their evocation of qur’anic language, but also in their creative employment of the text in constructing their own orthodox Christian Arabic theology. This article investigates the presentation of the Trinity as ‘God, his Word, and his Spirit’ in Christian Arabic theological tracts in the early centuries of Islam. It argues that Q 4.171 played a foundational role in constructing a distinct Christian Arabic Trinitarian theology and that Arabophone Christian writers discerned in it the nucleus of what could be developed as an orthodox Trinitarian theology. It traces the development of the Christian Arabic Trinitarian formulation in four works by Arabophone authors: John Damascene’s On Heresies 100; On the Triune Nature of God; the interreligious disputation in the court of the ?Abbāsid Caliph al-Ma?mūn attributed to the theologian Theodore Abū Qurra; and the apologetic letter by ?Abd al-Masī? al-Kindī. This article also makes observations on the implications of the Christian Arabic theological project for interreligious encounter in the early Islamic centuries.     

Protestant Theological Writings on Angels in Post-Reformation Thought from 1565 to 1739

Abstract

This is an introductory survey of Protestant theological writings on the doctrine of angels expressed in systems of theology (primarily loci communes), treatises, and sermons produced during the post-Reformation era of scholastic orthodoxy. The topic has received little scholarly attention, but is of importance for the light it sheds on a significant theological era that is not well known for its prolific literary activity on angelology. It provides a frame of reference on bibliographical sources for this subject to scholars of historical theology, historians of Reformation, Renaissance and Enlightenment thought, and those with interdisciplinary interests.

The Lord knows, we have weak Eyes, stammering Tongues, and trembling Quills; if we go about to speak or write of the deep and sublime things of God; And such, without peradventure, is the Doctrine of Angels¹—Robert Dingley (1619-1660)     

‘Sin is Rightly Called the Punishment of Sin’: Francis Turretin’s Reformed Doctrine of Sin

ABSTRACT

This article contextualizes Francis Turretin’s (1623–87) doctrine of sin, and in particular his understanding of sin as a punishment for sin. Specifically, it elaborates on the theological context into which Turretin speaks. Through analyzing Turretin’s historical situation, it progresses to the content of Turretin’s theology in light of his theological and political opponents. Utilizing Turretin’s Institutes of Elenctic Theology (1679–1685), St Augustine’s Contra Julianum, and John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion, amongst others, this article evaluates Turretin’s view of the doctrine of sin and its relation to medieval and early-modern European theology. Ultimately, it argues that Turretin’s view of sin as a punishment of sin is born from his understanding of God’s holiness being demonstrated through his ‘vindicatory justice’ and Turretin’s self-understanding as an ‘orthodox’ theologian in the grand tradition of Western theology extending back to the Church Fathers.     

Review Article: Thomas Cranmer and the English Reformation

Abstract

Martin Bucer's role in the Edwardian Reformation has been the subject of much study, most of which has been focused on his involvement in the Vestments Controversy, his role in the revision of the 1549 Prayer Book, and on his last major work, De regno Christi, which he wrote in 1550. What has received less attention is his sojourn in Cambridge, where he spent the majority of his time in England. Bucer's sometimes tense relations with members of Cranmer's circle, and even with Cranmer himself, provide a striking contrast to the ‘electric’ impact he had in Cambridge, which serves to underscore the importance of Cambridge to Bucer's English sojourn. The individuals whom he most influenced were members of the academic community at the University of Cambridge (where he served as Regius Professor of Divinity), especially the so-called ‘Athenian tribe’—although he did encounter the hostility of many members of his College, the largely conservative Trinity College. Cambridge proved to be the locus of Bucer's influence upon the English Church in these years, and his residence there deserves greater attention than it has received to date.     

Promoting Healthy Partnerships

ABSTRACT

This article offers practical suggestions for partnering with theological schools and libraries in developing countries. Drawing upon his own experiences, and those of others, the author, a theological librarian and consultant, guides readers through the perilous enterprises of international partnerships and foreign aid projects.