Cultural predictors of self-esteem: a study of Chinese American female and male young adults

This study examined how specific domains of cultural orientation (language, social affiliation, and cultural pride) related to self-esteem for a sample of 174 Chinese American male and 179 Chinese American female college students. Participants completed measures of cultural orientation (General Ethnicity Questionnaire; J.L. Tsai, Y.W. Ying, & P.A. Lee, 2000) and self-esteem (M. Rosenberg, 1965). Cultural orientation significantly predicted self-esteem, above and beyond the contribution of age, gender, grade point average, and socioeconomic status. Specifically, proficiency in English and Chinese languages and pride in Chinese culture were positively correlated with self-esteem, whereas affiliation with Chinese people was negatively correlated with selfesteem. The cultural predictors of self-esteem differed for Chinese American men and women. Whereas self-esteem was mainly related to pride in Chinese culture for Chinese American women, self-esteem was mainly related to English and Chinese language proficiency for Chinese American men. Implications of these findings for understanding Asian Americans are discussed.     

3~8岁儿童自尊发展特点的研究

采用自编的《3~8岁儿童自尊教师评定量表》,探讨了3~8岁儿童自尊发展的年龄和性别差异。结果表明：(1)3~8岁儿童的自尊存在显著的年龄差异,4岁和7岁可能是儿童自尊发展的转折年龄;(2)3~8岁儿童自尊发展存在非常明显的性别差异,女生自尊发展水平显著高于男生。     

Gender,Interdependent Self-construals,and Collective Self-esteem: Women and Men Are Mostly the Same

Women and men may differ in how they define themselves in reference to their social world. Baumeister and Sommer () suggest that women prefer close relationships whereas men prefer large-group memberships. We examined how this hypothesized gender difference relates to collective self-esteem from three interdependent groups: friends, family, and gender. Study 1 revealed that women and men report equivalent levels of collective self-esteem from both relational and collective groups. Study 2 replicated this finding, and further revealed that the importance of group membership to individuals is more crucial to understanding collective self-esteem than is a gender differences approach. We discuss the implications of these results in terms of contingencies of social self-worth and potential cognitive processes involved in self-construal.     

Collective self-esteem: role of social context among Asian-American college students

The present study explored several layers of individual and contextual variables as related to collective self-esteem among 304 Asian-American college students. The findings suggested that variables, such as immigration generation status and cultural identification, were significantly associated with Private collective self-esteem (personal evaluation of one's ethnic group), while contextual variables, including number of same-ethnicity peers and community ethnic composition, were associated with Public collective self-esteem (judgment of how other people evaluate one's ethnic group). In addition to these variables, age and fluency of heritage language were positively related to Membership esteem (how worthy one feels as a member of one's ethnic group). For the Importance of identity (the importance of ethnic group membership to one's self-concept), cultural identification, number of same-ethnicity peers, and perceived campus climate were statistically significant. The implication of the present findings for future research is discussed.     

青少年内隐与外显自尊的比较研究

运用两种程序分别测量了青少年的内隐自尊与外显自尊。内隐自尊由内隐联想测验测量,外显自尊由三项自尊量表测量。研究结果表明:在不同年龄阶段与不同性别的青少年中内隐自尊普遍存在;无论是内隐自尊还是外显自尊都不存在显著的性别差异;内隐自尊无显著的年龄差异;外显自尊存在显著的年龄差异,其中高中生比初中生和大学生有更低的外显自尊;内隐自尊与外显自尊之间无显著相关。     

Self-Perceived Gender Typicality, Gender-Typed Attributes, and Gender Stereotype Endorsement in Elementary-School-Aged Children

This study examined relations among self-perceived gender typicality, gender-typed attributes, and gender stereotype endorsement with a sample of elementary-school-aged children (N?=?100, ages 6–12) from the Midwestern United States. Children who perceived themselves as more gender-typical were more interested in same-gender-typed activities and occupations and less interested in other-gender-typed activities and occupations than children who perceived themselves as less gender-typical. Gender typicality was linked to gender stereotype endorsement, as predicted based on Liben and Bigler’s (2002) dual-pathway model of gender development, with children who perceived themselves as less gender-typical having more egalitarian (less stereotyped) attitudes than children who perceived themselves as more gender-typical. The observed relations between gender-typed attributes and self-perceived gender typicality and between self-perceived gender typicality and gender stereotype endorsement did not differ across gender or age. These findings indicate that even young elementary-school-aged children use their knowledge of cultural gender roles to make subjective judgments regarding the self, and, conversely, that views of the self may influence personal endorsement of cultural gender stereotypes. Although the majority of extant research has focused on negative outcomes associated with low self-perceived gender typicality (e.g., low self-esteem), this research indicates that positive outcomes (e.g., flexible gender role attitudes) may also be associated with low self-perceived gender typicality.     

Black Adolescent Girls: Do Gender Role and Racial Identity: Impact Their Self-Esteem?

This study was designed to explore Black adolescent girls' gender roles, racial identity, and self-esteem. These variables have not been examined together in a study of Black girls, yet studies of girls from other racial/cultural groups have demonstrated significant relationships. This type of exploration is important because Black girls do not experience the same declines in self-esteem as girls from other racial/cultural groups. Gender role orientation and racial identity have been put forth as possible explanations for Black girls' bolstered levels of self-esteem. Results indicated that Black girls with androgynous and masculine characteristics reported high levels of self-esteem. The results also indicated that Black girls with internally defined Black racial identity attitudes reported high levels of domain-specific self-esteem. In addition, androgyny was associated with high scores on internalization (Black racial identity).     

Chinese college students’ gender self-esteem and trans prejudice

Most studies of trans prejudice, or prejudice against transgender people, have been conducted in Western countries. The current study explored trans prejudice in a sample of 124 heterosexual college students from the People's Republic of China. We also examined the relationship between gender self-esteem—the importance of gender to one's self-identity—and trans prejudice. Results indicated that men reported more trans prejudice than women. Both women and men reported more violence toward, teasing of, and discomfort with trans women compared with trans men. Gender self-esteem was not a significant predictor of trans prejudice for men or women. These results suggest that some of the predictors of trans prejudice in Chinese people may be similar to predictors found in Western samples. However, differences may be due to cultural factors such as membership in a collectivistic versus an individualistic society.     

Global Self-Esteem in Technical/Vocational Versus General Secondary School Tracks: A Matter of Gender?

This article examines the consequences of being in a technical/vocational track for the global self-esteem of adolescents, with special attention to gender. The t-tests and multilevel analyses were performed with data from 3,720 Flemish fifth-year pupils—2,404 boys and 1,316 girls—in 33 secondary schools: 19 technical/vocational schools and 14 general schools. The analyses show that girls have significantly lower self-esteem than boys and that this gender effect suppresses a track effect. Analyses performed separately for boys and girls demonstrate that boys in technical/vocational schools have a significantly lower self-esteem than boys in general schools, but the analyses for girls show no difference for school type. Theoretical possibilities offer explanations for this gender difference in the consequences of being in a technical/vocational versus general track.     

The relation between low self-esteem and depressive mood in a non-clinical sample: The role of gender and negative life events

The suggestion that self-esteem is both a protective and a risk factor for depression is well documented. However, this association is not consistently observed by empirical research. The current study investigated the main and interactive effects of low self-esteem and stressful life events on depressive mood in a sample of university students (N = 862; female = 72%; black = 67%; mean age = 21.70, SD = 13.51). The students completed the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Perceived Stress Scale. Data were analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM); with stressful life events scores as a mediator, and gender as a moderator, of the relation between low self-esteem and depression. Results indicate that low self-esteem significantly predicted depression, and that stressful life events partially mediated that relationship. Support emerged for the vulnerability effects of low self-esteem on depression and they held across gender groups. Low self-esteem may be a significant indicator of individuals who are at risk for developing depressive mood.     

Perceived Parenting,Self-Esteem,and Depressive Symptoms in Immigrant and Non-Immigrant Adolescents in Italy: A Multigroup Path Analysis

Previous research has shown that a warm and caring parental style is associated with better psychological adjustment in adolescents from diverse cultural contexts. Yet, the differential role of mothers and fathers in adolescents’ depressive symptoms is still understudied, especially among immigrant populations. This study examined the relationship between perceived care from both mother and father and depressive symptoms among adolescents with and without a migration background, postulating mediation by self-esteem. Participants were 686 first-generation immigrant (44?% girls) and 1295 non-immigrant (46?% girls) Italian adolescents aged 14–20 years, who completed a questionnaire survey. Multigroup path analyses controlling for age, gender, and SES showed that (a) perceived maternal and paternal care and self-esteem were negatively related to depressive symptoms in both groups; (b) self-esteem mediated the link between perceived parenting and youth depressive symptoms in both groups; (c) the direct and indirect effects were invariant across the two groups. Results suggest that involved fathers, just as much as mothers, contribute to adolescents’ positive adjustment irrespective of immigrant status. Interventions may focus on the enhancement of self-esteem as well as the perceived quality of attachment to both mother and father, shifting away from risk models towards more positive youth development models.     

大学生习惯性负性自我思维与自尊的相关研究

采用实验法和测验法,让186名大学生完成内隐联想测验、SES量表和习惯性负性自我思维量表,探讨了中国文化背景下大学生习惯性负性自我思维与自尊的关系。结果发现:1)大学生有强烈的内隐自尊;2)内隐、外显自尊是相对独立的;3)习惯性负性自我思维存在显著性别差异;内隐、外显自尊及ZIAT-ZSES性别差异不显著;4)男大学生习惯性负性自我思维与外显自尊存在显著负相关,女大学生相关不显著;习惯性负性自我思维与内隐自尊及ZIAT-ZSES相关不显著。     

Gender Role Orientation and Anxiety Symptoms Among African American Adolescents

The present study evaluated gender role theory as an explanation for the observed gender differences in anxiety symptoms among adolescents. Specifically, the relation between gender, gender role orientation (i.e., masculinity and femininity), self-esteem, and anxiety symptoms was examined in a community sample of 114 African Americans aged 14 to 19 (mean age 15.77; 57 girls). Results revealed that masculinity was negatively associated with anxiety symptoms whereas femininity was positively associated with anxiety symptoms. Gender role orientation accounted for unique variance in anxiety scores above biological gender and self-esteem, and self-esteem moderated the relation between femininity (but not masculinity) and overall anxiety symptoms. Consistent with research on children and Caucasians, findings supported gender role theory as a partial explanation for the observed gender disparity in anxiety symptoms among African American adolescents.     

Is self-esteem the primary predictor of disordered eating?

This study examined whether self-esteem is the primary predictor of disordered eating. A survey measured levels of self-esteem and a variety of other health behaviors in 196 male and 263 female undergraduate students. We conducted stepwise regressions to determine which of several variables (self-esteem, high stress, poor coping skills, maladaptive perfectionism, gender) best predicted disordered eating. The results indicated that self-esteem was the secondary predictor for bulimia, drive for thinness, and body dissatisfaction. Future research should further investigate how self-esteem interacts with other predictor variables to better determine the relationship between self-esteem and disordered eating.     

Do gender differences in academic attainment correspond with scholastic attitudes? An exploratory study in a UK secondary school

Research has examined how standardized tests give rise to gender differences in English and STEM attainment, but little research has explored gender differences in classroom-based attainment and the degree to which these correspond to differences in school-related attitudes. To explore the extent to which gender-achievement gaps in classroom-based performance parallel differences in self-perceptions and scholastic attitudes. An independent sample of first (n = 187, age 11–12, Study 1) and second-year students (n = 113, age 12–13, Study 2) from a UK comprehensive secondary school completed a questionnaire measuring academic mindset, self-efficacy, self-concept, competence beliefs, personal and social self-esteem, and endorsement of gender-subject and career stereotypes. Responses were then matched to their respective classroom grades in English, mathematics, science, and computing. Girls outperformed boys in English in their first year but reported lower global self-esteem and greater endorsement of science-career stereotypes. Conversely, girls outperformed boys in mathematics in their second year, but paradoxically reported lower self-concept and competence beliefs in mathematics and science, and higher competence beliefs in English. Across both studies, mindset, self-efficacy, competence beliefs, and social self-esteem were positively related to English attainment; academic self-efficacy was positively related to mathematics attainment; and mindset, self-efficacy, self-concept, and competence beliefs were positively related to science attainment. Gender-achievement gaps in classroom-based academic attainment are complex and highly nuanced; they appear to vary between school subjects across years and may not correspond with similar differences in self-perceptions and scholastic attitudes.     

WHO CONSIDERS THEMSELVES VICTIMS OF DISCRIMINATION?

We focus on the general issue of how and why individuals might decide if they have been victims of gender discrimination and how social status differences between women and men may change the significance of experiencing gender discrimination. Because both self-protective and situational factors have been found to influence interpretation of prejudicial events, in the present study we explore several individual-difference factors that might differentially predict perceived gender discrimination in women and men. We found that, for men, low self-esteem and high personal assertiveness were related to higher ratings of personal discrimination. Low self-esteem was also related to men's perceptions of discrimination against men as a group. For women, high need for approval was negatively related to perceptions of personal discrimination whereas depression was positively related. Depression was also related to higher ratings of discrimination against women, as was feminism. We argue that perceptions of discrimination serve different purposes for structurally privileged and disadvantaged groups.     

Explaining Gender Differences in Depression: an Interpersonal Contingent Self-Esteem Perspective

The quality of interpersonal relationships may be a key factor in the etiology of depression. An interpersonal depressive vulnerability has been proposed to interact with interpersonal stressors to predict depressive symptoms. Research examining gender differences in this link has been inconclusive. We propose that research should focus on whether one’s self-esteem is based on the quality of interpersonal relationships. We propose a model of gender differences in depression that examines the role of interpersonal contingent self-esteem (ICSE) in the development of depression. Specifically, we propose that ICSE interacts with gender in the face of interpersonal stress to promote decreases in momentary self-esteem. Decreases in momentary self-esteem, in turn, lead to rumination, maladaptive interpersonal behaviors, and depressive symptoms.     

School activities and work: effects on adolescent self-esteem.

This study investigated the relationship between participation and involvement in school activities, degree of part-time work, and self-esteem in a sample of middle-class urban high school sophomores and juniors. The results indicated that self-esteem was affected by the nature of the school activity and by gender. Within a multivariate context, results indicated no significant correlates of self-esteem among the boys. Among the girls, the significant correlates of self-esteem were hours worked, age, and curricular track. The differential nature of school activities, gender, and the effects of working outside of school are discussed.