Deposit contracts with smokers: Varying frequency and amount of repayments

Predictions concerning the effects of variations in the parameters of deposit contracts with smokers were derived from the operant conditioning literature. The predictions were tested by group comparison studies involving 83 subjects in 12 treatment groups, using three deposit procedures. As predicted, increasing the amount of money returned in each deposit repayment improved short term abstinence rates. Increasing repayment frequency had a similar but not quite significant effect. The predicted relationship between frequency and amount of repayments, with variations in frequency having more effect, was not found. There were no long term differences between groups. The usefulness of the operant framework was therefore partially demonstrated. Some clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

The acute effects of nicotine on positive and negative affect in adolescent smokers

Although adolescent cigarette smoking remains a critical public health concern, little is known about the reinforcing mechanisms governing smoking in this vulnerable population. To assess predictions derived from both positive and negative reinforcement models of drug use, the authors measured the acute effects of nicotine, as administered via tobacco cigarettes, on both positive and negative affect in a group of 15- to 18-year-old smokers. A matched group of nonsmokers served as a comparison group. Findings revealed that whereas adolescents who smoked a cigarette experienced reductions in both positive and negative affect, the observed reductions in negative affect were moderated by nicotine content of the cigarette (high yield vs. denicotinized), level of nicotine dependence, level of baseline craving, and smoking expectancies pertinent to negative affect regulation. Nonsmokers experienced no change in affect over the 10-min assessment period, and no interaction effects were observed for positive affect. Overall, the findings conform to a negative reinforcement model of nicotine effects and strongly suggest that, even among young light smokers, nicotine dependence and resultant withdrawal symptomatology may serve as motivating factors governing smoking behavior.     

Exploring the cold-to-hot empathy gap in smokers

Many decisions related to cigarette smoking require people in an affectively neutral, or "cold," state to predict how they will feel or behave when in a craving, or "hot," state. Research in other domains has revealed that individuals in cold states often underestimate the impact of being in a hot state on their own future behavior. In a study testing whether this is true of cigarette craving, 98 smokers were assigned to one of three conditions: hot (during a high-craving first session, they made predictions about a high-craving state in a second session), cold (during a low-craving first session, they made predictions about a high-craving state in a second session), and comparison (they experienced a high-craving session only). As predicted, in contrast to smokers in the hot group, smokers in the cold group underpredicted the value they would place on smoking during the second session. Results support the existence of a cold-to-hot empathy gap in smokers and help to explain diverse aspects of tobacco addiction.     

Differences in panic psychopathology between smokers with and without asthma

Cigarette smoking is more common among individuals with asthma compared to those without, resulting in increased risk of morbidity and mortality. However, there has been little exploration of psychological factors that differ between smokers with and without asthma. Thus, the aim of the current study was to examine differences between smokers with and without asthma in terms of anxiety sensitivity, panic symptoms, lifetime history of panic attacks, and lifetime history of panic disorder. Participants were 115 smokers with asthma (55.3% male, M_age = 38.4 years, SD = 11.9) and 120 smokers without asthma (70.6% male, M_age = 37.0 years, SD = 12.8) who were administered a structured diagnostic interview and completed self-report measures. As hypothesized, after controlling for the effects of cigarettes per day, gender, race, and education, smokers with asthma reported higher levels of anxiety sensitivity and panic symptoms and were at an increased risk for having a lifetime history of panic attacks (OR = 3.01) and panic disorder (OR = 2.96) compared to smokers without asthma. Further, group differences in anxiety sensitivity and panic symptoms remained even after removing participants with a lifetime history of panic attacks or panic disorder. These findings suggest that smokers with asthma are a particularly ‘at-risk’ population for panic psychopathology and likely in need of specialized smoking-related prevention and intervention efforts.     

Mutuality and reciprocity in the psychological contracts of employees and employers

The authors assessed the joint perceptions of the employee and his or her employer to examine mutuality and reciprocity in the employment relationship. Paired psychological contract reports were obtained from 80 employee-employer dyads in 16 university-based research centers. On the basis of in-depth study of the research setting, research directors were identified as primary agents for the university (employer) in shaping the terms of employment of staff scientists (employees). By assessing the extent of consistency between employee and employer beliefs regarding their exchange agreement, the present study mapped the variation and consequences of mutuality and reciprocity in psychological contracts. Results indicate that both mutuality and reciprocity are positively related to archival indicators of research productivity and career advancement, in addition to self-reported measures of Met Expectations and intention to continue working with the employer. Implications for psychological contract theory are presented.     

Assessing the remedy: the case for contracts in clinical trials

Current orthodoxy in research ethics assumes that subjects of clinical trials reserve rights to withdraw at any time and without giving any reason. This view sees the right to withdraw as a simple extension of the right to refuse to participate all together. In this paper, however, I suggest that subjects should assume some responsibilities for the internal validity of the trial at consent and that these responsibilities should be captured by contract. This would allow the researcher to impose a penalty on the subject if he were to withdraw without good reason and on a whim. This proposal still leaves open the possibility of withdrawing without penalty when it is in the subject's best interests to do so. Giving researchers recourse to legal remedy may now be necessary to protect the science, as existing methods used to increase retention are inadequate for one reason or another.     

Community reforestation in the Philippines: An evaluation of community contracts

Concern over massive losses of tropical forest in the Philippines has led to a reforestation program that includes contracts with local community organizations. Two projects are evaluated with respect to the objectives of the program, which were: to reverse deforestation and environmental degradation; to improve the well-being of communities by increasing income opportunities; and, to ensure a sustainable forest-based economic sector. The evaluation, first undertaken four years into the program, was based on information from a variety of sources, including the local community. The assessment highlights the importance of on-going community participation and identifies significant obstacles to meeting the program’s objectives.     

The utility of behavior contracts and behavior proclamations with advantaged senior high school students

The relative efficiency of behavioral contracts and behavioral proclamations was empirically appraised in a parochial high school setting. Subjects were a select group of academically oriented seniors studying Problems in Democracy. The study consisted of an intra-subject replication design with eight phases aimed at determining the controlling influences of the experimental conditions for increasing appropriate student behavior. Line graphs and percentage tables were employed to analyze observational data. Results supported the position that students attain higher rates of appropriate behavior when given the opportunity to assist in classroom management. Both behavioral proclamations and contracts proved superior to the standard classroom procedures of the baselines.     

Personality characteristics of smokers and ex-smokers

The present paper examines the relationship between personality and smoking status in a random sample of 1257 adults. A broad sample of personality constructs were assessed to cover the major dimensions of personality. These included the EPQ, MMPI MacAndrew and Ego Strength scales, the Vando augmenter-reducer scale, the trait subscale of the STAI and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Factor analysis suggested that trait anxiety, neuroticism, self-esteem and ego strength could be grouped into a construct analogous to Esysenck's notion of neuroticism. Extraversion, augmenting-reducing, and the MacAndrew scale were grouped into a construct called extraversion. Results showed that smokers were the most extraverted group. Gender differences in the relation between smoking and neuroticism were found. Male smokers were much more neurotic than non-smokers and men who quit smoking, whereas there were no group differences in neuroticism for women. Both male and female smokers were high on psychoticism.     

Treatment contracts in long-term groups with alcoholic outpatients: A group case study

This paper describes the process of treatment contracting in a long-term group with alcoholic outpatients — relating the contracting process to the dynamics of the group and to the total treatment context. The material presented highlights the ways in which the contracting process (in particular, grappling with the issue of who should set the terms of the contract) may serve as a model for helping group members better understand and cope with problems in assertiueness and limit setting.     

The effects of a deposit contract as a component in a behavioural programme for stopping smoking

A contract procedure is described in which a money deposit provided by cigarette smokers at the time of stopping smoking is returned at set intervals contingent on their having not smoked. Outcome results up to 6 months after the stop smoking date are presented for 33 smokers who used this procedure as a component in a behavioural programme, and for 27 smokers who received the same treatment package but without the deposit component. The results for both groups are encouraging, and in the short term the deposit group did significantly better than the no-deposit group. Reasons for the failure of this difference to be maintained are discussed, and it is suggested that long term results would be improved by holding deposits over a longer interval. Other evidence is presented to show that the deposit procedure had a specific effect on smoking rather than a more general effect on attendance rates. Deposit contracts also appear acceptable to smokers. Urinary nicotine analysis appeared effective in deterring as well as detecting faking.     

An improved apparatus for the aversive conditioning of cigarette smokers

An apparatus is described which permits the presentation of an aversive stimulus (smoke) and a reinforcing stimulus (fresh air) in such a way that it is possible to control their respective latencies and durations. Verbal stimuli may also be presented conjointly with the aversive and reinforcing stimuli. This apparatus was designed to overcome the shortcomings in previous investigations by permitting a more systematic approach to the study of the factors relevant to successful behaviour therapy with addicted smokers. Nine subjects completed a course of aversive conditioning and four were found to be totally abstinent after 6 months follow-up. The weaknesses of the present technique are pointed out and possible improvements briefly noted. In particular, a “broad spectrum” behavioural approach to smoking is advocated.     

A model of situational preference amongst smokers

Seventy-five medium-light smokers rated their performance for smoking in 25 situations covering a range of high- and low-stress situations. Information on personality, age, sex, length of habit, number of cigarettes smoked, amount inhaled and amount of cigarettes smoked was also obtained. Six main factors were extracted by principal-factor analysis which were related respectively to situations involving preparatory activity, attentional stress, neutral relaxation conditions, unpleasant (anxiety) and pleasant (excited) emotional stress and social vs isolated activity. Smokers who scored high on Neuroticism tended to smoke more when experiencing unpleasant emotions; older smokers smoked predominantly in pleasant relaxing conditions; extraverts and low-activity situational smokers, reported inhaling more. A model of smoker motivation is developed which suggests that both pharmacological and psychological factors contribute to habit maintenance. Three basic motivational types of smokers are identified: high-stress smokers for whom smoking is a secondary activity, and who rely on smoking to form a minor distraction for their current task. Low-activity smokers who wish to act, or change their current affective state in some way and who rely on pharmacological factors. Neutral relaxation smokers for whom smoking is a pleasurable activity in its own right.