The Developmental Perspective in Integral Counseling

The process of making meaning is a core determinant of human experience. Understanding this process, developmentally, is a vital part of integral counseling. In this article, the authors introduce the concept of ego development stages as increasingly complex and flexible systems of meaning making. An understanding of ego development stages can help counselors to assist clients in a way that recognizes that people not only come in different “types” but also differ significantly in the level of their meaning‐making capacity.     

Stages of decompensation in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A new conceptual model

This conceptual article presents a model of severe, chronic combat-related PTSD based on several years of longitudinal clinical observations of Vietnam veterans. The model describes a repeating cycle of decompensation that profoundly disrupts the veteran’s life. There appear to be “stages” of decompensation that can be described clinically and may be distinct physiologically. The stages describe a wide range of functioning, from adaptive to totally dysfunctional. PTSD core symptoms, as well as several other dimensions of clinical functioning, such as affect regulation, defenses, ego states, interactions with the environment, capacity for self-destruction/suicide and capacity for attachment and insight are described for each stage. Clinical and research implications are discussed.     

Searching for the High-I

This paper questions the nature and existence of the ego and I from a Western and Eastern viewpoint, which has been a question for 2,500 years when the Buddha rejected the Brahman idea of ātman. The answer for an ego depends partly on the state of consciousness; the existence of the Western objectifying ego is undeniable in ordinary consciousness, but not in extraordinary consciousness with no objectifying. The subtle question remains about the existence of an I that is distinct from the ego and that is best represented by most meditative or contemplative states. Here a subjectified, witnessing, consciousness-maintaining I still seems to exist. This may be called the “High-I,” which appears to provide for all states of consciousness a constancy and awareness not provided by the ego. This finding has implications for psychology and religion as well as philosophy.     

Ego transcendence in postmodern perspective

Based on the author's previous specification of the conventional ego mind as the primary barrier to “realization of the ground of consciousness,” postmodern perspectives on the ego mind barrier are compared with premodern and modern approaches. Postmodernists view the ego as a socio‐linguistic construct. Modern assumptions of consistent subjectivity and a unitary self or identity are rejected, and reduction of the ego mind barrier to transcendence is seen to follow from exploration of alternative self‐concepts. This perspective is manifest in theories of “possible selves” and in the contrast between formulations such as the “saturated self vs. the “empty self.” Though forms of ego transcendence likely in postmodern cultures will differ from those in premodern cultures, many of the same functions will be served, as may be observed in such phenomena as “ecomysticism.”     

Promoting Advanced Ego Development Among Adults

An intervention study was conducted to investigate whether advanced ego development could be promoted if account was taken of the factors likely to be involved in the ego stage transition process in adulthood. A conceptual framework that identified such factors was described, in which it was hypothesised that stage transition occurs in response to life experiences that are structurally disequilibrating, personally salient, emotionally engaging, and interpersonal. The intervention was designed in accordance with these proposed types of life experiences, and was targeted toward adults at the modal stage of ego development. Using an experimental design, a significant increase in ego level was found in 2 equivalent intervention groups, with no increase found in a matched control group. The findings demonstrate the possibility of continued ego development in adulthood, including development to the advanced ego stages, and provide clarification regarding some of the processes involved in such development.     

The topological inventions of life: From the specialization of multicellular colonies to the functioning of the vertebrate brain

The evolution of biological (intermediary) complexity strongly depends upon the information‐processing advantages it confers to cells and organisms. As a matter of fact, highly complex biological structures such as the cellular signaling system and the vertebrate nervous system have been evolved in order to inform the living system about its surround, subsequently orienting the internal, productive activities. The evolutionary success of these types of informational structures ("infostructures") exemplifies that, almost universally, the “bit” may act as a successful substitute for the “joule”. Recent molecular biology research on cellular signaling systems has disclosed their amazing information‐processing sophistication and the crucial role they play in the formation and functioning of the vertebrate brain. In the neurosciences, duality theory has highlighted the way in which the cortical maps and the cerebral substructures of the vertebrate brain are “topologically” integrated in order to perform an adaptive information‐processing. The development of comprehensive conceptualizations relating brain processing and intracellular processing may well be a strategic step in the development of a vertical “information science”.     

A formulation of Erikson's theory of ego identity formation

This paper provides a comprehensive formulation of Erik Erikson's theory of ego identity formation as it pertains to both the identity stage and to the remainder of the life cycle. The structure of the identity stage is discussed in terms of its more universal features and in terms of features more specific to North American society. The role played by “institutionalized moratoria” in influencing the outcome of the identity crisis and subsequent development is discussed in the context of two Eriksonian notions ignored in the literature: the value orientation stages and the struggle between the ego and superego for dominance of the personality. As part of the discussion, several constructive criticisms of Erikson's work are offered with the intent of making the theoretical formulation presented in this paper an appropriate basis for subsequent empirical investigations of his theory. One of the important implications of this paper is that it suggests that questions should be raised regarding the validity of the dominant research strategy currently in use.     

Freud's philosophy of the uncanny

This paper is an attempt to uncover and bring to a coherent interpretation Freud's thoughts on the phenomenon of uncanniness. Starting out with the essay “The uncanny” the author wants to show that uncanniness plays an important rôle in the turn that Freud's thinking goes through at this time, and that the concept can serve as a springboard for a critical, phenomeno- logical reading of Freud's thoughts on the development of the ego. The analysis of the phenomenon of uncanniness itself tends to disrupt the coherence of Freud's earlier views and pushes him towards his later thinking. “Unheimlich” in German has the double meaning of uncanny and unhome-like, and what is not at home in itself in an uncanny sense, according to Freud, is precisely the human ego. Freud in “The uncanny” links the interpretation of uncanniness to compulsive repetition and thus makes the connection to trauma and birth anxiety discussed in later works such as “Beyond the pleasure principle” and “Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety”. The origin of our general sensitivity to the uncanny is thus, according to Freud, the loss of the mother suffered by the child as a kind of a priori traumatic experience, which is also the very event that makes the child into an ego. The understanding of traumatic neurosis and other forms of mental illness is consequently linked to an analysis of this primal uncanniness of life.     

始成年期自我同一性发展特点及影响因素

Erikson将自我同一性看作是终生发展的过程并把18~25岁作为发展的关键时期, Arnett根据后现代社会的现实环境将这一阶段命名为“始成年期”。始成年期自我同一性对情感、工作、世界观等自我同一性发展领域的关注度相对青少年期更广泛与深入, 发展任务的繁杂使始成年期自我同一性的发展更具波动性, 并随着个体逐渐成熟而更多处于同一性的高级状态。后现代社会属性是始成年期自我同一性问题的根本, 原生家庭持续影响始成年期自我同一性的发展, 同时学校与工作单位这样的社会机构构成近端环境直接作用于始成年期自我同一性, 自主性在始成年期个体与其家庭及所处社会机构的交互作用中对自我同一性起到关键性调节作用。     

Ego Development during the Transition from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study

Although Loevinger's (1976) ego development theory represents a milestone approach to life-span personality development, little is known about ego development during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood, including the average gain in group means, whether individuals maintain their relative position to each other, and age-related changes in within-cohort variability. These issues are examined using the ongoing Block and Block Longitudinal Study. Across a 9-year interval—from age 14 to age 23—the findings indicate that: (a) the average person gains approximately 1.5 ego development steps, (b) within-cohort variability in ego development increases with age, (c) ego level at ages 14 and 23 is moderately related, (d) large individual differences exist in the timing and extent of ego development, and (e) the magnitude of change is smallest for individuals who have already reached the Self-aware level as adolescents. The findings suggest that the Self-aware level represents a developmental “hurdle” during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Possible explanations are explored in terms of pacers for ego development.     

Identity and Psychosocial Development in Adulthood

Psychosocial development in adulthood is viewed from several perspectives. Stage-specific crises in ego growth associated with different life cycle periods are addressed in terms of status measures expanding on Erikson's polar alternative resolutions (Erikson, 1959). The developmental linkages between these stages are discussed using these status measures, and development from one status to another within a particular psychosocial stage is examined. With respect to identity itself, the cyclical process that might describe identity re-formulation through the adult psychosocial stages is discussed and illustrated. Finally, 2 case studies are presented as examples of adult psychosocial development.     

History of a Childhood Neurosis and Its Relation to the Adult Superego

The purpose of this paper is to find meaning for the “presence of conscience” observable in the psychoanalytic setting and corresponding evidence for the origins of such ways of thinking, feeling, and remembering. I apply this perspective to the case study of a man who presented as constricted, inhibited, anxious, and self-critical. He was outwardly successful but internally tormented with what can best be described as an obsessional neurosis. His initial symptomatic neurosis was supplanted by a transference neurosis reflecting a childhood obsessional neurosis. In my theory of mind during this analysis, I often saw the original ideas of Freud at work—unconscious sense of guilt, ego ideal, and conscience. The analysand represented over and over the dynamics of the Oedipus stage of development. I made additional observations about character formation and guilt. The analysand terminated his work with me symptom-free. From this case study, I learned that the presence of conscience (guilt and self-denigration), or of superego structure and function in classical terms, is best approached as to origin by following the development of self in reference to the other.     

Identity and sociocultural change: Comparing young indigenous people in Chiapas who have different sociodemographic trajectories

One of the most commonly used distinctions in cross‐cultural studies is the one between individualism and collectivism. One of the criticisms levelled at this distinction is that it fails to incorporate the differences that may exist when comparing people from a rural context with little formal education to people from the same group who live in an urban context where formal education is the norm. Bearing in mind these sociodemographic factors, we have compared the self‐concepts among 104 young indigenous people in Chiapas (Mexico), having divided them into three groups: “rural‐traditional,” “rural–urban” and “urban.” These people's self‐concepts were analysed using a task that contrasts personal self‐concept with social self‐concept and a technique in which participants draw themselves along with the things and people they consider most important to them. The results reveal significant differences between the three groups. The personal categories are given a higher value in the “urban” group while the social categories score higher in the “rural‐traditional” group. Regarding the results of the indigenous self‐portraits, from the content analysis of the drawings, 16 categories emerged. These findings are discussed in the light of Greenfield's theory of social change and human development.     

Evaluating Self-Concept and Ego Development Within Erikson's Psychosocial Framework: A Formulation

The purpose of this article is to suggest criteria developed within the context of Erikson's first five psychosocial stages that may be helpful in evaluating self-concept and ego development. The strength of Erikson's theory has been in its contribution to the understanding of the self's development over a series of psychosocial stages. A weakness, however, has been in the ambiguity about what behaviors to look for during any particular stage that allow one to evaluate the status of a person's psychological growth. To assess areas of strengths and weaknesses in the self's growth as it progresses through these stages, five behavioral expressions tables are presented, each illustrating possible behaviors and implicit attitudes associated with positive and negative ego resolutions at each stage. Implications for the evaluation of problem areas and counseling are noted.     

What Tipper is Ready for: A Semantics for Incomplete Predicates

This paper presents a precise semantics for incomplete predicates such as “ready”. Incomplete predicates have distinctive logical properties that a semantic theory needs to accommodate. For instance, “Tipper is ready” logically implies “Tipper is ready for something”, but “Tipper is ready for something” does not imply “Tipper is ready”. It is shown that several approaches to the semantics of incomplete predicates fail to accommodate these logical properties. The account offered here defines contexts as structures containing an element called a proposition set, which contains atomic propositions and negations of atomic propositions. The condition under which “Tipper is ready” is true in a context is defined in terms of the contents of the proposition set for the context. On this account, the content of the context pertinent to a conversation must be determined not by what speakers have in mind but by relations of objective relevance.     

Ego development in the face of death: How being HIV positive affects movement through Erikson's adult stages of development

Erikson's epigenetic model of psychosocial development posits that each of eight stages unfolds in a particular sequence, and each becomes the primary issue of concern at specified times in the life cycle. Erikson does not address, nor could any empirical studies be located, exploring how the emergence of these eight stages might be affected by a diagnosis of terminal illness. The purpose of this study was to understand how an HIV-positive diagnosis affected movement through Erikson's stages of development. In-depth interviews were conducted with a sample of 18 HIV-positive men and women under 45 years of age. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed three findings regarding Erikson's stages: (1) The fifth stage of idenitity versus role confusion was revisted and the sense of self is redefined; (2) the three adulthood stages of intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus depair were dealt with simulataneously and, in most cases, resolved favorably; and (3) intimacy and generativity enabled and supported the resolution of the tasks of identity and ego integrity.     

Relations between level of ego development and adjustment pattern in adolescents

The present study was designed to assess the relation between Loevinger's hierarchy of ego development stages, measured by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test, and adjustment patterns as measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. A total of 150 high school students between the ages of 14 and 15, 75 boys and 75 girls, served as subjects. It was hypothesized that certain adjustment patterns were more prevalent at certain points of the ego development hierarchy than at others, specifically: (a) hypochondriasis and psychopathic deviance at the ego stages below conformity; (b) hysteria at the conformist ego level; and (c) obsessive-compulsiveness and paranoia at the ego stages above conformity. All of these hypotheses, except that regarding psychopathic deviance, were supported by the data. One unpredicted relationship, a tendency for depression to be most characteristic of the conformist ego group, was found.     

A Practice-Based Approach to Group Identification in Nonverbal Learning Disorders

Evidence-based practice, the rigorous conduct of clinical analysis and intervention, includes practice-based evidence. Here, practice data were the source of three “clinical portraits” used for exploratory analysis of an array of cognitive and social problems in 30 children whose neurobehavioral profiles fulfilled psychometric criteria for a nonverbal learning disability (NLD). Qualitative analysis of the children's academic and adjustment difficulties revealed patterns of dissociable deficits. These findings argue for at least three groups within the NLD construct. Identifying such subgroups is of practical importance: More precise characterization of neuropsychological competencies leads to improved interventions and better outcomes.     

The use of schemata in the acquisition and transfer of knowledge

A learning model based on “memory schemata” is presented. The model assumes that knowledge substructures in memory are shared by multiple representations of information from diverse contexts. These substructures, or schemata, are collections of concepts and associations that occur together repeatedly and act as unitary, higher-order concepts. When knowledge is represented in terms of a schema, associations from the schema to additional concepts specify the detailed information for that context. This organization of knowledge entails both costs and benefits for the acquisition and retention of new information that utilizes a schema. The use of a familiar encoding structure facilitates memory access at storage and retrieval time. Multiple uses of the shared structure produce interference among concepts from the various contexts. The predictions of the model were tested in two transfer experiments in prose learning. Experiment l demonstrated the simultaneous effects of both facilitation and interference in the learning of diverse information conforming to a single schema. Recall of information from the schema was a non-monotonic function of schema strength. In Experiment 2 facilitation was preserved while interference was eliminated by increasing the discriminability among competing contexts. Results from both experiments confirmed the predictions of the model.