Racial groups and test fairness, considering history and construct validity

According to Helms, "test fairness" is defined as "removal from test scores of systematic variance attributable to experiences of racial or cultural socialization." Some of Helms's reasoning is based on earlier work, which recommended that racial group or category variables be replaced entirely with individual-level constructs, to reflect racial socialization experiences that vary within racial groups. Treatment of the test fairness issue--a social and political issue--will benefit from explicitly considering historical events that contributed to group-level race differences. In light of this history, D. A. Newman et al suggest (a) retaining a group-level conceptualization of race/racial socialization and also (b) focusing on criterion-irrelevant variance in test scores that is attributable to race.     

Variables affecting racial-identity salience among African Americans

The author clarified the African American racial-group identification process by addressing the issue of salience and its relationship to racial-group attitudes. A sample of 409 African American adults responded to surveys pertaining to their racial-group salience, racial-group attitudes, racial socialization, racial-group interaction, political activism, experiences of discrimination, and demographic data (e.g., sex, age, and income). The author tested 3 hypotheses: (a) Racial socialization and interaction with other African Americans are predictive of African American racial-identity salience; (b) discriminatory experiences are predictive of African American racial-identity salience; and (c) racial-identity salience is a stronger predictor of African American racial-group identification than are previously identified predictive variables (D. H. Demo & H. Hughes, 1990; V. L. Thompson Sanders, 1991, 1995). The results supported the 1st and 3rd hypotheses.     

Variables Affecting Racial-Identity Salience Among African Americans

Abstract

The author clarified the African American racial-group identification process by addressing the issue of salience and its relationship to racial-group attitudes. A sample of 409 African American adults responded to surveys pertaining to their racial-group salience, racial-group attitudes, racial socialization, racial-group interaction, political activism, experiences of discrimination, and demographic data (e.g., sex, age, and income). The author tested 3 hypotheses: (a) Racial socialization and interaction with other African Americans are predictive of African American racial-identity salience; (b) discriminatory experiences are predictive of African American racial-identity salience; and (c) racial-identity salience is a stronger predictor of African American racial-group identification than are previously identified predictive variables (D. H. Demo & M. Hughes, 1990; V. L. Thompson Sanders, 1991, 1995). The results supported the 1st and 3rd hypotheses.     

Speaking of fairness in testing

In an article based on her presentation to the 114th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Janet Helms described a concept of test fairness. Helms's approach to fairness appears to be based on the premise that socialization consists of experiences received from one's environment, which are simply internalized as personal attributes. From an ecological perspective, this is incorrect, misleading, and oddly evocative of social-cognitive and psychodynamic notions. Individuals are not passive recipients of culture, and they do not necessarily simply reflect their experiences. Although Helms intended her model to apply to racial and cultural groups, it seems that she has overlooked the potential of applying her concept of fairness to another important level of social organization: the family. R. J. Griffore suggests that it is unfair to avoid using valid tests that are said to be unfair because of racially or culturally based construct-irrelevant variance if those tests can help individuals make decisions that lead to success outcomes. The use of race or culture as a variable that in any way jeopardizes the prediction of success for individuals or groups is unfair for all groups for whom the test is used.     

Fairness is not validity or cultural bias in racial-group assessment: a quantitative perspective

When test scores that differ by racial groups are used for assessment purposes, resulting decisions regarding members of the lower scoring group are potentially unfair. Fairness is defined as the removal from test scores of systematic variance attributable to experiences of racial or cultural socialization, and it is differentiated from test-score validity and cultural bias. Two fairness models for identifying, quantifying, and removing from test scores construct-irrelevant variance attributable to racial or cultural psychological attributes are presented. ((c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).     

African American men's Gender Role Conflict: The significance of racial identity

This study examined the relationships between racial identity attitudes and gender role conflict in a sample of 95 African American men ages 23–80 years old. Participants completed the 1981 Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale by Parham and Helms and the 1986 Gender Role Conflict Scale by O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, and Wrightsman. Results indicated that racial identity attitudes were differentially related to patterns of gender role conflict when racial identity is externally defined. However, an internally defined racial identity had no relationship to gender role conflict. Results are discussed in terms of the significance of racial identity for understanding African American men's conflict associated with traditional male gender role standards and expectations.     

Cultural Mistrust,Ethnic Identity,Racial Identity,and Self‐Esteem Among Ethnically Diverse Black University Students

Cultural mistrust, ethnic identity, racial identity, and self‐esteem were examined among African (n = 26), African American (n = 110), and West Indian/Caribbean (n = 24) university students. African American students' scores were statistically different from those of African and West Indian/Caribbean students on cultural mistrust, racial identity, and ethnic identity measures. There were no statistically significant differences on self‐esteem among the 3 groups. Results did indicate that cultural mistrust, ethnic identity, and racial identity accounted for 37% of the variance in self‐esteem for African American students. Implications for practice and future research directions are discussed.     

African Americans' Racial Identity and Socially Desirable Responding: An Empirical Model

The authors developed a model of the relationships between racial identity development and socially desirable responding, using a sample of African American undergraduate students. Instruments used were the Racial Identity Attitude Scale‐Long Form (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996) and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (D. L. Paulhus, 1991). The results challenge previous research conclusions regarding social desirability and racial identity development. Implications of findings for researchers, instrument developers, and counselors are included.     

African and African American Graduate Students' Racial Identity and Personal Problem-Solving Strategies

This study examined differences on the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS; Helms & Parham, 1985) and the Problem Solving Inventory (PSI; Heppner, 1981, 1988) among 34 African and 48 African American graduate students. Significant differences were found on the preencounter and internalization scales of the RIAS. There were no group differences in coping ability as measured by the PSI. In addition, the African group experienced an acculturation effect as time in the United States was extended beyond 3 years. These differences in racial identity states have implications for cross-cultural counseling.     

Emotions and White Racial Identity Status Attitudes

Relationships between emotional states and White racial identity status attitudes (Helms, 1984 , 1990) were tested on a sample of 286 White students. The stimulus was a vignette in which one condition involved explicit racial information and one did not. Participants rated baseline and posttest emotions and completed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms & Carter, 1990 ). In the race condition, levels of posttest fear decreased as levels of autonomy status attitudes increased. Se realizó un test sobre las relaciones entre los estados emocionales y las actitudes de estado de identidad racial blanca (Helms, 1984 , 1990) en una muestra de 286 estudiantes blancos. El estímulo fue una viñeta en la cual una de las condiciones incluía información racial explícita y otra no. Los participantes evaluaron las emociones de referencia y con posterioridad al test, y completaron la Escala de Actitudes de Identidad Racial Blanca (Helms & Carter, 1990 ). En la condición de raza explícita, los niveles de miedo con posterioridad al test disminuyeron, mientras que los niveles de actitudes de estado de autonomía aumentaron.     

Exploring the Links Between Racial Identity Attitudes and Psychological Feelings of Closeness in African American College Students

The relationship between racial identity attitudes and psychological closeness to various African American groups was examined in 171 African American college students at a predominantly White southeastern university. The data were collected using the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms & Parham, 1985), and a scale measuring Perceived Psychological Closeness to African Americans. The closeness scale is a 14-item instrument that was found to represent (in this sample) psychological closeness to 4 African American groups. Internalized racial identity attitudes indicated positive feelings toward various groups of African Americans. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that internalized racial identity attitudes were predictive of psychological closeness to African Americans, although this varied somewhat depending on the subgroup.     

African American students' ratings of Caucasian and African American counselors varying in racial consciousness

African American college students (63 female, 30 male) rated vignettes of counselors varying in racial consciousness (high vs. low) and race (African American vs. Caucasian). Participants then completed a counselor rating scale and the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Short Form; T. A. Parham & J. E. Helms, 1981). African American counselors were rated more favorably than White counselors, and high racially conscious counselors were rated more favorably than low racially conscious counselors. The African American counselor with high racial consciousness was rated the most favorably. Several significant correlations were found between participants' racial identity attitudes and their ratings of counselors. Implications for the training of both African American and White counselors are considered.     

Why Is There Still No Study of Cultural Equivalence in Standardized Cognitive Ability Tests?

To investigate how the culturalist perspective on investigating racial group differences in standardized cognitive ability tests has advanced, a content analysis of 28 studies citing J. E. Helms (1992) identified 7 general themes. Overall, researchers cited J. E. Helms (1992) as support for their own hypotheses but did not directly test the culturalist perspective. Para investigar cómo ha avanzado la perspectiva culturalista sobre la investigación de las diferencias entre grupos raciales en los tests estandarizados de abilidades cognitivas, un análisis de contenido de 28 estudios que citan a J. E. Helms (1992) identificó 7 temas generales. En conjunto, los investigadores citaron a J. E. Helms (1992) para apoyar sus propias hipótesis, pero no comprobaron la perspectiva culturalista directamente.     

An Intergroup Contact-Theory Framework for Evaluating Racial Climate on Predominantly White College Campuses

This study examined the association of racial climate to social integration outcomes among 215 African American students and 144 White students from a predominantly White university. Presented is preliminary evidence regarding the utility of an ecological approach based on Allport's (1954) intergroup contact theory in examining students' climate perceptions and their impact. Responses to a racial climate scale previously used in secondary settings were collected from participants, and, through factor analysis, a revised scale was developed. The revised scale showed evidence for five subscales assessing perceived intergroup interactions on campus at individual and institutional levels, as well as individuals' personal intergroup interactions. Group differences were found for the subscales and in relationships between subscales and college integration outcomes. Findings suggest the importance of understanding college climate at interpersonal and institutional levels and of assessing impact for both majority and minority students.     

The Counseling Process as Defined by Relationship Types: A Test of Helms's Interactional Model

Helms (1984) presented a model to explain the influence of Black and White racial identity development on counseling interactions. The purpose of this study was to examine her hypothesis that specific combinations of racial identity attitudes contribute to qualitatively different counseling process and outcome or relationship types.     

Race, social class and ability patterns on the WISC-R

The national standardization sample of whites and blacks on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised (WISC-R) was the basis for a detailed analysis of the psychometric nature of racial and social class differences on the original 13 subscales of the WISC-R. The profiles of subtest scores of whites and blacks were compared directly and also after the racial groups were statistically equated on Full Scale IQ (FSIQ). Under the latter condition, the races differ only very slightly, although significantly, on some of the subtests, in ways generally contrary to popular expectations. The profile of white-black differences on the WISC-R subtests is markedly different, and negatively correlated with, the profiles of social class differences within each racial group, indicating that the pattern of racial differences is not explainable in terms of the difference in the average socio-economic status (SES) of blacks and whites. A Schmid-Leiman orthogonalized hierarchical factor analysis yields virtually identical factor structures and highly congruent factor loadings on the subtests for whites and blacks. Analysis of factor scores shows that by far the largest proportion of the variance between races is attributable to the general factor (g) common to all the subtests, whereas the group factors (verbal, performance and memory) contribute only minutely to the interracial variance. Hence the white-black differences on the diverse subtests of the WISC-R, and in the Full Scale IQ, are interpreted primarily as a difference in Spearman's g, rather than as differences in the more specific factors peculiar to particular content, knowledge, acquired skills or type of test. However, some slight but significant differences in patterns of ability also occur that are independent of g.     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial Identity Among White Americans: A Replication and Extension

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the influence of White racial identity attitudes on racism. A total of 234 White undergraduate students participated in this investigation. The students completed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms & Carter, 1990) and the New Racism Scale (Jacobson, 1985). Consistent with findings in previous research, White racial identity attitudes were predictive of racism. We also found gender and age differences in White racial identity attitudes. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the role of counselors in addressing racial awareness on college campuses.     

Assessing White Racial Identity: The White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS)

Prior to the ready availability of Helms and Carter's (1990) White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-W), Claney and Parker (1989) developed the White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS). Using this device they reported finding a curvilinear relationship between the stage of racial identity or consciousness of Whites and their comfort with African American persons. Recently, the WRCDS seems to be gaining acceptance by scholars working in the area of White racial identity. Data, however, are presented suggesting that the WRCDS lacks adequate reliability and concurrent validity and that the findings and future use of the instrument should be questioned.     

Racial identity and the MMPI in African American male college students

The relation of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to the Racial Identity Attitude Scale--Black, Short Form (RIAS-B) was examined among 50 African American male college students in a reanalysis of unpublished MMPI data described in R. H. Dana (1993). This permitted study of relationships between MMPI scores and specific psychological variables hypothesized to produce cultural differences among African Americans. Results indicated RIAS-B scale scores functioned as predictors of MMPI scale scores. Similar research with the MMPI-2 incorporating larger samples that more adequately represent African American heterogeneity is needed. Methodological implications of these findings for MMPI-2 research with ethnic and racial groups are discussed, emphasizing the importance of research to depathologize African American racial and cultural identity.     

White Racial Identity Statuses and NEO Personality Constructs: An Exploratory Analysis

This study investigated the relationship between White racial identity development as proposed by J. E. Helms (1995) and the personality constructs Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Participants were 105 White college students (55 women and 50 men) who were administered the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1993), the NEO Five‐Factor Inventory (P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) and the New Racism Scale (C. K Jacobson, 1985). Results indicated that White racial identity was differentially related to several personality constructs and aversive racism. Implications for future White racial identity research are discussed.