Feminist bioethics: toward developing a "feminist" answer to the surrogate motherhood question.

Although a wide variety of feminist approaches to bioethics presently share a common feminist methodology (sometimes referred to as "raising the woman question"), they do not all share the same feminist politics, ontology, epistemology, and ethics. As a result of their philosophical differences, feminist bioethicists do not always agree on which biomedical principles, practices, and policies are best suited to serving women's interests. In other words, some feminist bioethicists insist that so-called "assisted reproduction" enhances women's procreative liberty, while others claim that it does nothing of the sort. Although such disagreement among feminist bioethicists reassures the general public that the feminist "program" for bioethics is not ideologically monolithic, it also confuses the public, especially women. In order to overcome this confusion, feminist bioethicists should work toward developing the kind of shared theoretical base that will foster frequent consensus on the biomedical principles, practices, and policies most likely to serve the interests of most women in the U.S. today.     

Menage à trois: Freud,Beauvoir, and the Marquis de Sade

Without rejecting Simone de Beauvoir's often cited feminist agenda, this paper takes up her less frequently noted insight – that woman's existence as the inessential other is more than a consequence of material dependency, and political inequality. This insight traces women's subordinated status to the effect of a patriarchal desire that produces and is sustained by a political imaginary that is not economically grounded and is not undermined by women's economic or political progress. Taking up this insight, this paper reads Beauvoir, Freud and Sade through each other, to critique the myths of femininity. It argues that unless feminists of the 21st century follow Beauvoir's logic of ambiguity to challenge the ways in which sexed and gendered subjectivity is currently structured, the place of the inessential other will be preserved, and the feminist vision will be betrayed.     

Love's labor in the health care system: working toward gender equity

In this commentary on Eva Feder Kittay's Love's Labor: Essays on Women, Equality, and Dependency, I focus on Kittay's dependency theory. I apply this theory to an analysis of women's inadequate access to high-quality, cost-effective healthcare. I conclude that while quandaries remain unresolved, including getting men to do their share of dependency work, Kittay's book is an important and original contribution to feminist healthcare ethics and the development of a normative feminist ethic of care.     

How Psychoanalytic Thinking Lost its Way in the Hands of Men: The Case for Feminist Psychotherapy

A feminist stance is adopted to challenge the androcentric nature of many of the concepts which lie within the tradition of male psychoanalytical thinking. Such thinking steadfastly refused, and largely still refuses, to acknowledge the social reality and consequences of women's experience of living in a patriarchal society. It is argued that psychoanalytical theory has construed women as inferior and is wholly revealing of what men expect and want women to be. Any psychotherapy based solely within that tradition thus plays its part in the oppression of women. Two concepts from analytical psychotherapy, transference and counter-transference, are used as specific examples, and some contrasting researches advanced by feminist psychotherapy are outlined.     

Feminist Approaches to Social Science: Epistemological and Methodological Tenets

This paper is a primer for community psychologists on feminist research. Much like the field of community psychology, feminist scholarship is defined by its values and process. Informed by the political ideologies of the 1970s women's movement (liberal, radical, socialist feminism, and womanism), feminist scholars reinterpreted classic concepts in philosophy of science to create feminist epistemologies and methodologies. Feminist epistemologies, such as feminist empiricism, standpoint theory, and postmodernism, recognize women's lived experiences as legitimate sources of knowledge. Feminist methodologies attempt to eradicate sexist bias in research and find ways to capture women's voices that are consistent with feminist ideals. Practically, the process of feminist research is characterized by four primary features: (1) expanding methodologies to include both quantitative and qualitative methods, (2) connecting women for group-level data collection, (3) reducing the hierarchical relationship between researchers and their participants to facilitate trust and disclosure, and (4) recognizing and reflecting upon the emotionality of women's lives. Recommendations for how community psychologists can integrate feminist scholarship into their practice are discussed.     

Feminism and Health in the Decade of Behavior

National health data are presented to demonstrate that important issues of women's health are linked to inequality and to the generalized oppression of women. Health issues of violence, reproductive health, coronary health, and mental health are reviewed as they relate to women of color and diverse ethnicity as well as to women in general. Feminist principles are applied to these issues, pointing out inequalities in assessment, treatment and access to care, bias in research and lack of research on topics particularly relevant to women and minorities, and limitations in the education and training of health care providers. It is imperative that these problems, which are not solely biological, be addressed in light of systems-level analysis that includes a feminist lens. Guided by feminist principles and sensibilities, the relevance of behavioral and social science is outlined for research, training, assessment, intervention, evaluation, and overall social change.     

MEASURING FEMINIST ATTITUDES

Henley and colleagues' results, obtained in the process of developing a scale to measure the diversity of feminist attitudes, highlight a dilemma for feminist researchers in psychology. On the one hand, we advocate research based on feminist theory. On the other, we believe that research should begin with the lived experiences of women, from which theory should be generated, rather than forcing women's responses into a predetermined theoretical mold. Several aspects of Henley and colleagues' results contradict feminist theory. I argue that researchers should use empirical data to refine feminist theories.     

The Impact of Welfare Reform on Men's Violence against Women

Welfare reform is likely to have a profound effect on the lives of poor women who are being abused. This article proposes exchange theory and the feminist backlash hypothesis as frameworks with which to assess the impact of welfare reform on violence levels in abusive relationships. Exchange theory suggests that if a woman leaves welfare and obtains employment that increases her economic resources, violence against her will decrease. The backlash hypothesis makes a different prediction: Violence will increase as men attempt to compensate for women's enhanced status or independence. Both approaches are examined in light of current data. As demonstrated here, the incorporation into social policy analyses of feminist thinking about dominance and power will enrich our understanding of the impact of social policy changes on people.     

Ethics Naturalized: Feminism's Contribution to Moral Epistemology

A survey of Western feminist ethics over the past thirty years reveals considerable diversity; nonetheless, much recent work in this area is characterized by its adoption of a naturalistic approach. Such an approach is similar to that found in contemporary naturalized epistemology and philosophy of science, yet feminist naturalism has a unique focus. This paper explains what feminist naturalism can contribute to moral philosophy, both by critiquing moral concepts that obscure or rationalize women's subordination and by paying attention to real-life practices of moral inquiry, including those used by women.     

The Map of Relational-Cultural Theory

SUMMARY

Psychological theory-building has long been dominated by White, European-male perspectives, perspectives that fail to account for the multifaceted experiences of diverse and marginalized populations. Feminist theory seeks to explore, encompass, and understand the wide range of human experience, a territory that is viewed as broad and complex and dynamic. Relational-Cultural Theory as it addresses the critical importance of relational exchange related to development and health provides an elaboration of some of the most basic feminist principles. Perhaps not surprisingly, this evolving theoretical model has emerged out of the relational work of five women and continues now within an ever-expanding and diverse network of women. This paper will present several elements of this work, its relevance to the larger work of feminist theory, and some of the major contributions of the founding “Monday Night Group.”     

College Women��s Feminist Identity: A Multidimensional Analysis with Implications for Coping with Sexism

This study examined components of women's feminist identity and possible relations to their reported coping responses to sexism. A sample of 169 undergraduate women (M?=?19.4?y, SD?=?1.2) from diverse ethnic backgrounds completed surveys assessing their experiences and gender-related views. The first set of analyses revealed that women's social gender identity, exposure to feminism, and gender-egalitarian attitudes independently contributed to feminist identification; moreover, non-stereotyping of feminists further predicted feminist self-identification. A second set of analyses tested the relative contribution of feminist identity components to women's cognitive appraisals of coping responses to sexual harassment. Seeking social support was predicted by self-identification as a feminist (for White European American women only). Confronting was predicted by social gender identity, non-stereotyping of feminists, and public identification as a feminist. Findings highlight possible components of women's feminist identity and their possible impact on coping responses to sexism.     

Feminist Interventions: Accountability Beyond Symptom Reduction

Feminist interventions to facilitate women's psychological well-being are forging new pathways to achieving the goals of the Decade of Behavior. In emphasizing the complex interplay between internal and external factors in women's lives, feminist interventions are designed to promote women's safety, health, positive life styles, personal strength, competence, and resilience. In contrast, prevailing medical models locate the problem within the woman by concentrating on diagnosis and treatment of pathology and internal disorders. I offer a model here for implementing and assessing intervention strategies that targets both the effects of unsupportive or negative environments and the imperative to strengthen and empower girls and women, their families, and their communities. The obligation to be accountable for the outcomes of feminist interventions encompasses a major focus of this article. Evolving developments in research on accountability are reviewed in relation to conceptualization, goal setting, and assessment of feminist interventions. I encourage continuing collaboration between the feminist-informed research and practitioner communities to promote women's health, safety, and well-being in the Decade of Behavior.     

EVERYONE FEELS EMPOWERED: UNDERSTANDING FEMINIST SELF-LABELING

Research findings raise questions about whether the feminist identity development model provides information about women's social identification as a feminist. Specifically, the penultimate stage, Synthesis, has been theorized to capture when feminist identity formation coalesces and women take on the feminist label. However, available data have suggested this stage may not be related to feminist self-labeling, calling for a better understanding of the variables associated with identifying oneself as a feminist. An online questionnaire was administered to 653 female self-identified feminists and nonfeminists in order to investigate the association between feminist self-labeling and Synthesis scores and to better understand what it means to take on the social identity of a feminist. Feminist self-labeling was not associated with Synthesis; however, women who self-labeled as feminists were more likely to acknowledge the existence of sexism, view the current gender system as unjust, and believe that women should work together in order to enact change. Synthesis was related to a combination of feminism- and conservatism-related constructs. Women high in Synthesis viewed the current gender system as just yet also believed that women should work together to enact change. We discuss the paradox represented by this combination of beliefs as well as their implications for the feminist identity development model and the women's movement in general.     

A Gender Analysis of Theories of Coping with Stress

In this article, various feminist theories are used to critique selected psychological theories of coping with stress, a reformulated coping theory is outlined, and recommendations for future research are made. To date, theories of coping often portray women as less able copers than the samples of men with whom they are compared. A reformulated theory, based on different women's experiences, explicitly examines the role of social forces (sexism, racism) and access to power as variables in the coping process rather than solely focusing on the individual. Selected examples of research that contribute to such a revision are given. Revised theories and methodologies will encourage the more accurate appraisal of women's coping abilities and generate information vital to the creation of more inclusive and representative theories of coping.     

FROM KATE SANBORN TO FEMINIST PSYCHOLOGY: THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF WOMEN'S HUMOR, 1885–1985

While current feminists are calling for a theoretical psychology of women, the present paper suggests that its foundation can be found in the writings of certain nineteenth-century women. Their conclusions, drawn from a different era and assuming contrasting social science paradigms, parallel and anticipate modern discoveries. This paper examines the work of Kate Sanborn (1839–1917), who edited an anthology of women's humor and crusaded for 20 years to alter the stereotype of women's humorlessness. It is suggested that her work adds to our knowledge of feminist history, as well as presaging current theoretical developments in the psychology of women.     

Evaluating Elizabeth Grosz's Biological Turn

Elizabeth Grosz's interpretation of Darwinian evolutionary theory to ground a feminist ontology of biology has been particularly controversial. Most critics have understood Grosz as supporting her theory with empirical evidence, and they criticize her for being either inaccurate or uncritical of and overly dependent on science. I argue that Grosz reads Darwin as a philosopher in a Deleuzian and Irigarayan sense, and that Grosz's project is therefore better understood in terms of its ethical and political goals rather than in terms of empirical adequacy. Employing this evaluative framework leads to a novel route for critique of Grosz's ontology in terms of its reliance on the Darwinian distinction between organism and environment. I conclude that Grosz's work is valuable for the way it maintains ethical and political considerations in feminist ontological debates, and that introducing a more sensitive understanding of the organism–environment relation will lead us closer to a truly feminist ontology of biology.     

Feminist Resources for Biomedical Research: Lessons from the HPV Vaccines

Several feminist philosophers of science have argued that social and political values are compatible with, and may even enhance, scientific objectivity. A variety of normative recommendations have emerged regarding how to identify, manage, and critically evaluate social values in science. In particular, several feminist theorists have argued that scientific communities ought to: 1) include researchers with diverse experiences, interests, and values, with equal opportunity and authority to scrutinize research; 2) investigate or “study up” scientific phenomena from the perspectives, interests, and conditions of marginalized stakeholders potentially affected by the research; and 3) make gender, ethnicity, class, and geographical location “visible,” or use them as categories of analysis when appropriate. Yet, more work is needed to determine what exactly these recommendations would require, and the benefits they would yield, in specific research contexts. Using the recent development of the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines, we examine how these three feminist recommendations would have applied. We argue that these principles would have yielded several epistemic and social benefits in the HPV case, as well as in biomedical research more generally. That is, biomedical research guided by these principles would not only be epistemically superior, but also more socially responsible.     

“蜜糖裹砒霜”：善意性别偏见对女性生涯发展的影响

善意性别偏见因持有者的主观好意往往难以被识别为偏见, 但会通过限制女性的角色形象和将其置于弱者地位从而巩固性别不平等的状况。近年来大量实证研究发现, 善意性别偏见从家庭教育、婚恋角色分工和职场竞争等方面挤压女性的生涯发展空间; 相比来自他人态度的直接作用, 这些消极影响更多通过女性对善意性别偏见的自我内化来实现。针对这一作用机制, 研究者们从女性感知和应对善意性别偏见的个体心理层面提出了多种理论解释。我们认为, 从女性主义心理学视角审视善意性别偏见的相关研究, 如何秉持研究立场的客观性和价值观的中立性是值得反思的问题; 女性主义心理学的最新理论发展也对性别偏见的研究趋势具有重要启示。     

Women, careers, and work-life preferences

There are no sex differences in cognitive ability but enduring sex differences in competitiveness, life goals, the relative emphasis on agency versus connection. Policy-makers' and feminist emphasis on equal opportunities and family-friendly policies assumes that sex discrimination is the primary source of sex differentials in labour market outcomes—notably the pay gap between men and women. However, some careers and occupations cannot be domesticated—examples are given—and this also poses limits to social engineering. Recent research shows that high levels of female employment and family-friendly policies reduce gender equality in the workforce and produce the glass ceiling. Preference theory is the only theory that can explain these new trends, the continuing pay gap and occupational segregation. Preference theory implies that there are at least three types of career rather than one. However, the differences between men and women's career goals are smaller than sometimes thought.