Knowledge organization and skill differences in computer programmers

Like experts in other fields, expert computer programmers can recall at a glance far more information relevant to their field than novices can. One explanation for this difference is that experts not only have more information, they have it better organized into meaningful chunks. In this paper, we infer the details of individual programmers' chunks of key programming concepts using the Reitman—Rueter (Cognitive Psychology, 1980, 12(4), 554–581.) technique for inferring tree structures from recall orders. Differences in organizations accompany skill-level differences. Beginner programmers' organizations show a rich variety of common-language associations to these programming concepts; Intermediate programmers show mixtures of programming and common-language associations; and Experts show remarkably similar, but not identical, organizations based clearly on programming knowledge.     

Results of a preliminary survey of computer users in psychological laboratories

A short questionnaire was distributed to a subset of the computer users connected with the National Conference on the Use of On-Line Computers in Psychology to determine the type of computer equipment used by psychologists and the current uses of that equipment. The results of this pilot study are discussed in this paper.     

Speechreading skill and visual movement sensitivity are related in deaf speechreaders

Individual speechreading abilities have been linked with a range of cognitive and language-processing factors. The role of specifically visual abilities in relation to the processing of visible speech is less studied. Here we report that the detection of coherent visible motion in random-dot kinematogram displays is related to speechreading skill in deaf, but not in hearing, speechreaders. A control task requiring the detection of visual form showed no such relationship. Additionally, people born deaf were better speechreaders than hearing people on a new test of silent speechreading.     

Personality factors related to quantitative estimation skill: confirmation and extension

The relationships of two measures of quantitative estimation skill, computational estimation and numerosity estimation, were examined with the 16 PF Global Factors corresponding to the Big Five personality dimensions in a sample of 80 college students. Correlations of Computational Estimation with the 16 PF scores confirmed findings from a previous study which used the NEO-Five Factor Inventory as a measure of the Big Five, specifically showing that Computational Estimation correlated significantly with the 16 PF's Independence factor. Numerosity Estimation did not correlate significantly with any of the 16 PF Global Factors or with any of the ability measures (Computational Estimation, SAT Verbal, SAT Mathematics, and self-rated mathematics ability) used in the study.     

Representations underlying skill in the discrete sequence production task: effect of hand used and hand position

Various studies suggest that movement sequences are initially learned predominantly in effector-independent spatial coordinates and only after extended practice in effector-dependent coordinates. The present study examined this notion for the discrete sequence production (DSP) task by manipulating the hand used and the position of the hand relative to the body. During sequence learning in Experiment 1, in which sequences were executed by reacting to key-specific cues, hand position appeared important for execution with the practiced but not with the unpracticed hand. In Experiment 2 entire sequences were executed by reacting to one cue. This produced similar results as in Experiment 1. These experiments support the notion that robustness of sequencing skill is based on several codes, one being a representation that is both effector and position dependent.     

Exposure to repetitive tasks induces motor changes related to skill acquisition and inflammation in rats

The authors elucidate exposure-response relationships between repetitive tasks, inflammation, and motor changes with work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Using a rat model of reaching and handle pulling, they examined effects of performing a high-repetition, low-force (HRLF); low-repetition, high-force (LRHF); or high-repetition, high-force (HRHF) task (2 hr/day, 3 days/week, 12 weeks) on reach rate and force, percentage of successful reaches, duration of participation, and grip strength. Reach rate and reach force improved with HRLF, and percentage success increased in all groups in Week 9, and in HRLF and HRHF in Week 12, indicative of skill acquisition. Duration and grip strength showed force-dependent declines with task performance. A subset of HRHF rats received ibuprofen in Weeks 5-12. Ibuprofen significantly improved reach rate, reach force, and duration in treated rats, indicative of an inflammatory influence on reach performance. Ibuprofen improved percentage of successful reaches in Week 9, although this increase was not sustained. However, declines in grip strength, a nocifensive behavior, were not prevented by ibuprofen. Examination of cervical spinal cords of untreated and ibuprofen treated HRHF rats showed increased IL-1beta, an inflammatory cytokine, in neurons. These findings suggest that only a preventive intervention could have addressed all motor declines.     

A new breed of computer users: Rats control a cursor via joystick manipulation

Many exciting findings have been reported in the 15 years since monkeys were first demonstrated to have the capacity to perform computerized tasks. The present data indicate that albino rats can also learn to respond to computer-generated stimuli by manipulating a joystick. Although the rat’s control of the cursor is not as skillful as has been reported for primate species, it is clearly better than chance and suggests the great potential for comparative investigation afforded by use of the computer test system.     

Transfer of training from introductory computer courses is highly specific ... and negative!

Two groups of students in an introductory computer course learned either BASIC programming or the use of applications software. Students in the programming group learned to use a simple line editor to edit their programs, whereas students in the applications group learned to use a sophisticated cursor-oriented word processor. When both groups were tested on a simulated line-oriented text editor, there were no differences in overall performance, although both groups performed more poorly than did a group of introductory psychology students with no previous computer background. Different error patterns in the two groups for different commands suggest specific kinds of negative transfer due to their prior experiences. These results call into question the assumption that training students in one computer skill facilitates transfer to other situations.     

AIDS prevention for intravenous drug users in the community: Street-based education and risk behavior

Conducted a study of behavior change associated with a street-based AIDS education project targeted to intravenous (IV) drug users in San Francisco. Two cross-sections were sampled from drug detoxification clinics and street locations in 1986 (n = 438) and 1987 (n = 623). Significant increases were reported in the percentage of IV drug users who used bleach to decontaminate syringes, who did not share needles in past year, and in condom use. A significant reduction in an index of the number of needle-sharing partners was reported. Respondents ranked treatment program as most important source of AIDS information prior to implementation of the program, and ranked outreach workers as most important after implementation. Findings suggest that this community-based outreach program had at least some impact on knowledge about AIDS and may have led to reductions in behaviors known to transmit HIV.     

Perceptions of athletic competence and fear of negative evaluation during physical education

Background. Physical education (PE) aims to enhance self‐esteem, develop sporting interests and to encourage a physically active life‐style. However, little is known about how a fear of negative evaluation (FNE), the socially evaluative aspect of social anxiety, affects children's attitudes to PE. Aim. The aim of the study was to investigate the relationships between perceived athletic competence and FNE within PE lessons, specifically looking at differences between boys and girls and primary and secondary schools. Sample. The participants were 192 children in three primary schools (N = 85, mean age = 9.5±1.1 years) and two secondary schools (N = 107, mean age = 14.5±0.8 years) from rural areas of North Wales and the Midlands region of England. Methods. The participants completed the Brief‐FNE Scale and the Self‐Perception Profile for Children immediately post‐lesson on one occasion. Results. Girls had higher FNE but lower perceptions of athletic competence than did boys. Older girls had higher FNE and lower perceived competence than the remaining three groups. Additionally, a significant and reverse but weak correlation was observed between girls' perceived athletic competence and FNE. Conclusions. The findings suggest that girls with a high FNE report lower perceptions of their athletic competence. Individuals who are high in FNE behave in ways to avoid the prospect of being evaluated negatively. However, they may seek feedback from significant others as a signal that unfavourable evaluations have been avoided. Therefore, positive, encouraging feedback used in child‐centred learning strategies may foster feelings of competence in boys and girls and could reduce the girls' social anxiety.     

Receipt of negative feedback is related to increased negative feedback seeking among individuals with depressive symptoms

In recent years, numerous studies have demonstrated a link between positive and negative feedback seeking by depressed individuals, interpersonal rejection, and depression chronicity. Nonetheless, many of the specific interpersonal patterns underlying these links have yet to be clearly specified. One important lingering question concerns how depressed individuals respond to negative evaluation or feedback from others, because continued negative feedback seeking could place depressed people at risk for further rejection and continuation/exacerbation of depressive symptoms. Two studies were conducted to investigate the influence of negative feedback provisions from others on the feedback seeking behaviors of individuals with depressive symptoms. The results from Study 1 indicated an increased tendency to seek negative feedback among depressive individuals in association with an independent negative evaluation by their college roommates. Using a sample of newlywed couples, Study 2 extended this finding by demonstrating that, when directly provided with negative feedback from their spouses, individuals with depressive symptomatology actively sought further negative feedback, while those without such symptoms did not. Together, the results from these studies suggest that depressed individuals are likely to respond to negative evaluation and feedback from others with behaviors that could place them at risk for further rejection and continuing, if not worsening problems with depression.     

Analysis of effects of distribution of practice in learning and retention of a continuous and a discrete skill presented on a computer

This investigation examined the effects of distributed and massed practice on the learning and retention of a discrete computerized skill (Exp. 1) and a continuous computerized skill (Exp. 2). 40 men were randomly assigned to one of four groups, of which two groups took part in Exp. 1 and two groups in Exp. 2. Performance was assessed at various points during acquisition and then on 8 retention tests conducted at varying times after acquisition. Learning curves for practice were highly similar for the two conditions. Participants in the distributed-practice group performed significantly better than those in the massed-practice group at the end of practice on both the discrete and continuous skills. However, participants in the distributed-practice group performed significantly more poorly on retention during 24 hr. and after acquisition. Participants in the massed-practice condition performed significantly better on retention tests than did those who learned in the distributed-practice condition.     

Improving computer skill training: behavior modeling, symbolic mental rehearsal, and the role of knowledge structures

Effective computer skill training is vital to organizational productivity. Two experiments (N = 288) demonstrated that the behavior modeling approach to computer skill training could be substantially improved by incorporating symbolic mental rehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual images and symbolic memory codes. As theorized, the significant effects of SMR on declarative knowledge and task performance were shown to be fully mediated by changes in trainees' knowledge structures. The mediational role of knowledge structures is expected to generalize to other training interventions and cognitive skill domains. Our findings have the immediate implications that practitioners should use SMR for improving the effectiveness of computer skill training.     

A new breed of computer users: rats control a cursor via joystick manipulation.

Many exciting findings have been reported in the 15 years since monkeys were first demonstrated to have the capacity to perform computerized tasks. The present data indicate that albino rats can also learn to respond to computer-generated stimuli by manipulating a joystick. Although the rat's control of the cursor is not as skillful as has been reported for primate species, it is clearly better than chance and suggests the great potential for comparative investigation afforded by use of the computer test system.     

Stability and skill in driving

Two experiments addressed the relation between postural stability, perceptual sensitivity, and stability of driving performance. A vehicle was fitted with differential GPS for measuring position and speed, position sensors for measuring brake and accelerator depression, force transducers for measuring door, console and footrest bracing forces, and an accelerometer for measuring the 3D accelerations of the vehicle. In Experiment 1, we investigated whether the initiation of deceleration and the control of braking might be due to sensitivity to the perceptual variable tau, which specifies time-to-contact (TTC), and in particular, whether its first derivative, tau-dot, is used to maintain a constant deceleration profile. Using both untrained experienced drivers (EDs) and trained driving instructors from the Holden Performance Driving Centre (HPDC), results confirmed that, regardless of skill level, tau-dot was maintained at a value close to 0.5 and, as predicted by Lee [Perception 5 (1976) 437], braking was initiated when TTC approximately 5 s. In Experiment 2, we wished to quantify the purported differences in driving behaviour between EDs and HPDC instructors during a variety of everyday manoeuvres. Results indicated that instructors utilised a different cornering trajectory, a different emergency braking strategy, and were able to perform a high-speed swerve and recovery task more effectively than the EDs. In general, the instructors applied greater bracing forces using the door and console compared with EDs. The instructors also applied greater footrest forces during emergency braking than did the EDs. The greater use of bracing by instructor drivers to resist g-forces represents a strategy of active stabilisation that enhances both postural stability, as well as overall stability and consistency of driving performance. Results are discussed with regard to the dynamics of perceptual-motor coordination, and how increased stability might improve sensitivity to relevant perceptual information. We conclude that driver-training programmes that focus on increasing driver stability (as a pre-requisite for increased control) show great promise as a means to improving one's attention during driving, and hence have the potential to dramatically improve road safety in general.     

Using and being used by categories. The case of negative evaluations and daily well-being

Three studies involving 257 undergraduates examined whether a simple choice reaction time task could predict daily experiences of affect. Individuals who were fast to make negative evaluations experienced more negative affect and more somatic symptoms and were less satisfied with their lives, compared with individuals who were slow to make negative evaluations. A fourth study, involving 89 undergraduates, indicated that performance on the task was relatively unaffected by transitory mood states. The results support the idea that categorization provides a useful perspective on personality functioning.