双语和双言对图片命名和分类的不对称影响

采用普通话-英语双语者、粤语-普通话双言者和普通话单言者为被试, 比较他们图片命名与图片分类的成绩。结果表明, 普通话-英语双语者用优势语言命名图片的反应时比普通话单语者显著长, 错误率显著高。在第4次和第5次重复呈现图片时, 普通话-英语双语者与普通话单语者的命名反应差异不显著。普通话-英语双语者与普通话单语者对图片分类的反应差异不显著。这表明, 双语影响图片命名却不影响图片分类。粤语-普通话双言者对图片命名和图片分类的反应模式和普通话-英语双语者一致, 表明粤语-普通话双言和普通话-英语双语有类似的认知机制。普通话和粤语是作为两种语言储存在粤语-普通话双言者的头脑中的。     

方言和外语学习对词汇通达能力的影响

使用图片命名任务和TOT(舌尖现象)任务考察方言和外语学习对词汇通达能力的影响。实验结果发现,在图片命名任务和TOT任务中,单语者的表现均好于粤语-普通话双言者和粤语-普通话-英语三语者,粤语-普通话双言者和粤语-普通话-英语三语者的表现没有显著差异。该结果说明,与外语学习一样,方言也会影响个体的词汇通达能力,但方言和外语学习对词汇通达能力的影响依赖于他们的使用频率。     

熟练粤语-普通话双言者听觉词的语言表征*

以熟练粤语-普通话双言者为被试, 考察粤语-普通话双言者对听觉词的语言表征。实验1呈现粤语和普通话同形异音的词, 实验2呈现粤语和普通话异形异音的词, 要求被试做语义决定。结果发现, 粤语-普通话双言者对听觉词的语言表征类似于双语者, 即普通话和粤语的语义共同表征, 词汇分别表征。所以如此, 是由粤语的特点和它与普通话的关系决定的。     

语言产生过程中非目标语言的激活与抑制

运用长时重复启动范式, 探讨熟练和非熟练中－英双语者语言产生过程中非目标语言的激活与抑制。实验1探讨双语被试在学习阶段使用中文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言英文概念层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果发现, 两种熟练水平的被试均没有出现重复启动效应; 实验2探讨双语被试在学习阶段使用英文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言中文概念层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果发现, 熟练双语被试没有出现重复启动效应, 而非熟练双语被试出现了重复启动效应; 实验3探讨非熟练双语被试在学习阶段使用英文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言中文词汇层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果没有出现重复启动效应。综合三个实验的结果可以表明, 熟练中－英双语者语言产生过程中在概念层面上就对非目标语言(不管是一语还是二语)进行了抑制, 而非熟练中－英双语者使用一语时可以在概念层面上抑制非目标语言(二语), 但使用二语时不能在概念层面上抑制非目标语言(一语), 要在词汇层面上才能抑制非目标语言(一语)。     

不熟练汉英双语儿童翻译加工的特点

本研究使用单词翻译、图片命名和单词命名任务探查了不熟练的小学三、五和初一年级汉英双语儿童前向翻译和后向翻译的内在过程,结果发现,(1)各组被试命名图片和单词的语言效应显著,用第二语言命名图片和单词的反应时显著长于用第一语言命名图片和单词的反应时;(2)各组被试在前向翻译的反应时显著长于后向翻译,随着第二语言熟练程度的提高,反应时的差异逐渐减小。对结果的分析表明,不熟练的汉英双语儿童在两个翻译方向的内在过程相同,都是概念中介的,但两个翻译方向的加工速度差异显著。     

潮汕话-普通话双言者的词汇习得年龄效应

采用潮汕话-普通话双言者为被试, 通过3个实验, 考察了词汇习得年龄效应。实验1采用汉字命名和图片命名范式, 证实了在双言者的两种语言中都存在词汇习得年龄效应。实验2和实验3分别采用语义范畴判断及声母监控任务, 在语义层面及语音层面检验了双言者的两种语言的词汇习得年龄效应的特点。结果表明, 在语义任务上发现了词汇习得年龄效应, 在语音任务上未发现。整个研究表明, 语义在汉语词汇习得年龄效应产生中具有重要作用, 支持了语义假设。     

普通话和粤语记忆中的语言依赖效应

通过两个实验考察普通话和粤语环境下的记忆语言依赖效应。实验1运用自传式回忆范式,考察语言环境对情境记忆提取的影响。结果表明,在普通话和粤语环境下,普通话-粤语双言被试的回忆体现了对语言环境的依赖。当回忆时的语言环境和事件发生时的语言环境相同时,获得了更多的同类记忆。实验2通过听觉方式呈现词,考察语音和语言表达方式对再认的影响。结果表明,普通话-粤语双言被试对用粤语方言表达的词反应时间短,误报率低,辨别力强,表明语音和语言表达方式是影响普通话-粤语双言被试记忆语言依赖效应的重要因素     

自然情境下舌尖效应的认知年老化——日记研究

舌尖效应是一种话到嘴边却说不出来的单词提取失败现象(Tip-of-the-Tongue, TOT)。本研究通过TOT回溯问卷和日记记录方法对青年人和老年人进行了为期28天的追踪, 考察了自然情境下舌尖效应认知年老化的发生特点及机制。结果表明：(1)自然情境下TOT存在认知老化现象, 老年人TOT发生频率比青年人更高; (2) TOT发生时, 个体存在替代词和语义相关信息的提取, 且青年人比老年人产生了更强烈的兴奋感和疲惫感的元认知体验; (3) TOT发生后目标词几乎都能获得提取, 老年人TOT的解决时间比青年人长, 但其解决率无年龄差异。TOT的解决时间受目标词熟悉性、是否存在替代词和个体主观体验的认知和元认知因素影响。(4)对TOT认知状态和元认知状态的记录会影响后续发生TOT的状态, 且延长其解决时间, 表明被试付出了更多努力和时间解决TOT。TOT的认知状态和元认知状态的因素都对TOT的解决时间产生了影响。     

熟练和非熟练中英双语者不同认知控制成分的比较

使用面孔任务考察熟练中英双语者和非熟练中英双语者在不同认知控制成分上的差异。被试为60名大学生。结果表明,熟练中英双语者在抑制控制和转换上的反应时消耗量均显著小于非熟练中英双语者,但在反应抑制上的反应时消耗量与非熟练中英双语者没有显著差异。该结果说明,二语熟练程度越高,中英双语者的认知灵活性(转换)和抑制控制(干扰控制)能力就越强;但是二语熟练程度对反应抑制能力没有明显的影响。由此可以推测,二语学习能促进中英双语者的认知灵活性(转换)和抑制控制(干扰控制)能力,但是,二语学习对中英双语者的反应抑制能力没有明显的促进作用。     

二语语音辨别能力个体差异来源:来自ERP研究的证据

本研究探讨个体二语语音辨别能力的差异来源。以母语为粤语(L1)的粤语-普通话双语者为研究对象,根据被试的普通话二语(L2)的辨音能力,将其分为二语辨音强组(GP)和二语辨音弱组(PP),以失匹配负波(MMN)为电生理指标通过ERP实验分别考察了两组被试对语音和一般声音(复合音)的辨别差异。结果发现:无论是对母语语音辨别还是对跨语系第三种语言的语音辨别,二语辨音强组的被试诱发的MMN波幅都显著大于二语辨音弱组的被试;进一步,对一般复合音的辨别,二语辨音强组的被试诱发的MMN波幅也显著大于二语辨音弱组的被试。研究结果表明:二语语音辨别的个体差异不仅可以追溯到一般语音层面的辨音能力差异,还可以进一步追溯到一般声音层面的复合音辨音能力差异。     

What is a TOT? Cognate and translation effects on tip-of-the-tongue states in Spanish-English and tagalog-English bilinguals

The authors induced tip-of-the-tongue states (TOTs) for English words in monolinguals and bilinguals using picture stimuli with cognate (e.g., vampire, which is vampiro in Spanish) and noncognate (e.g., funnel, which is embudo in Spanish) names. Bilinguals had more TOTs than did monolinguals unless the target pictures had translatable cognate names, and bilinguals had fewer TOTs for noncognates they were later able to translate. TOT rates for the same targets in monolinguals indicated that these effects could not be attributed to target difficulty. Two popular TOT accounts must be modified to explain cognate and translatability facilitation effects, and cross-language interference cannot explain bilinguals' increased TOTs rates. Instead the authors propose that, relative to monolinguals, bilinguals are less able to activate representations specific to each language.     

From tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) data to theoretical implications in two steps: when more TOTs means better retrieval

Two experiments in which participants named pictured objects with difficult or easier names, and a reanalysis and review of published data, reveal that problematic measures used in previous studies obscured the implications of group differences in tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) rates. In Experiment 1, increased age led to more TOTs for difficult but not easy targets. In Experiment 2, bilinguals had more TOTs than monolinguals for easy targets but fewer TOTs for difficult targets. The authors developed a theoretically motivated measure that clarifies the implications of TOT data by linking all responses elicited in the TOT paradigm with either success or failure in completing 2 retrieval steps in current models of language production. The 2-step analysis reveals a common mechanism for the age and bilingualism effects and implies that age has both positive and negative effects on retrieval.     

加工水平对普通话与粤语记忆语言依赖效应的影响

通过两个实验,考察了加工水平对普通话和粤语记忆语言依赖效应的影响。实验1考察了在有意学习中的记忆语言依赖效应。结果表明,测验的语言环境对再认有重要影响。被试在粤语测验环境下对学习过的韩国语词再认反应时短,误报率却低,辨别力强,“记得”反应占优势。实验2考察了无意学习中的记忆语言依赖效应。结果表明,被试在粤语测验环境下,对评定过的韩国语词再认反应时短,误报率却高,辨别力差,但“记得”反应占优势;但在普通话测验环境下,对评定过的韩国语词再认反应时长,误报率却低,辨别力强,“知道”和“猜测”反应增加。整个研究表明,记忆的语言依赖效应在有意学习和无意学习中都存在,但有不同的趋势,表明加工水平是影响普通话和粤语记忆语言依赖效应的重要变量     

Tip-of-the-tongue states reveal age differences in the syllable frequency effect

Syllable frequency has been shown to facilitate production in some languages but has yielded inconsistent results in English and has never been examined in older adults. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states represent a unique type of production failure where the phonology of a word is unable to be retrieved, suggesting that the frequency of phonological forms, like syllables, may influence the occurrence of TOT states. In the current study, we investigated the role of first-syllable frequency on TOT incidence and resolution in young (18-26 years of age), young-old (60-74 years of age), and old-old (75-89 years of age) adults. Data from 3 published studies were compiled, where TOTs were elicited by presenting definition-like questions and asking participants to respond with "Know," "Don't Know," or "TOT." Young-old and old-old adults, but not young adults, experienced more TOTs for words beginning with low-frequency first syllables relative to high-frequency first syllables. Furthermore, age differences in TOT incidence occurred only for words with low-frequency first syllables. In contrast, when a prime word with the same first syllable as the target was presented during TOT states, all age groups resolved more TOTs for words beginning with low-frequency syllables. These findings support speech production models that allow for bidirectional activation between conceptual, lexical, and phonological forms of words. Furthermore, the age-specific effects of syllable frequency provide insight into the progression of age-linked changes to phonological processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved).     

Repetition Priming Effects in Proficient Mandarin–Cantonese and Cantonese–Mandarin Bidialectals: An Event-Related Potential Study

The present study adopted a repetition priming paradigm to investigate the bidialectal (bilingual) representation of speakers with different native dialects by event-related potential (ERP) technique. Proficient Mandarin–Cantonese and Cantonese–Mandarin bidialectals participated in the study. They were required to judge whether a word was a biological word or not, when the words (target word) were represented under four types of repetition priming conditions: Mandarin (prime)–Mandarin (target), Mandarin (prime)–Cantonese (target), Cantonese (prime)–Cantonese (target) and Cantonese (prime)–Mandarin (target). Results of reaction time and accuracy primarily indicated larger repetition priming effects in Mandarin–Mandarin and Cantonese–Cantonese (within-language) conditions than that in Mandarin–Cantonese and Cantonese–Mandarin (between-language) conditions. But more importantly, P200 and N400 mean amplitudes revealed distinct repetition priming effects between two types of participants. Specifically, both P200 and N400 indicated that the repetition priming effect in Mandarin–Mandarin condition was larger than that in Cantonese–Cantonese condition for Mandarin–Cantonese participants, whereas it was opposite for Cantonese–Mandarin participants. In addition, P200 also suggested opposite patterns of repetition priming effects in between-language priming conditions for two groups of participants. The repetition priming effect in Mandarin–Cantonese condition was larger than that in Cantonese–Mandarin condition for Mandarin–Cantonese participants, while for Cantonese–Mandarin participants, it was opposite (Mandarin–Cantonese < Cantonese–Mandarin). The results implied a clear asymmetric representation of two dialects for proficient bidialectals. They were further discussed in light of native dialect and language use frequency.     

Masked translation priming effects with low proficient bilinguals

Non-cognate masked translation priming lexical decision studies with unbalanced bilinguals suggest that masked translation priming effects are asymmetric as a function of the translation direction (significant effects only in the dominant [L1] to nondominant [L2] language translation direction). However, in contrast to the predictions of most current accounts of masked translation priming effects, bidirectional effects have recently been reported with a group of low proficient bilinguals Duyck & Warlop 2009 (Experimental Psychology 56:173–179). In a series of masked translation priming lexical decision experiments we examined whether the same pattern of effects would emerge with late and low proficient Greek (L1)–Spanish (L2) bilinguals. Contrary to the results obtained by Duyck and Warlop, and in line with the results found in most studies in the masked priming literature, significant translation priming effects emerged only when the bilinguals performed the task with L1 primes and L2 targets. The existence of the masked translation priming asymmetry with low proficient bilinguals suggests that cross-linguistic automatic lexico-semantic links may be established very early in the process of L2 acquisition. These findings could help to define models of bilingualism that consider L2 proficiency level to be a determining factor.     

非熟练潮-粤双言者的语义通达：来自听觉词加工的证据

采用听觉跨语言启动的语义判断范式, 考察非熟练潮-粤双言者的两种方言之间的语义通达方式。结果发现, 无论是以潮语词为启动词, 还是以粤语词为启动词, 当二者具有翻译关系时, 启动词均促进对目标词的识别, 但L1对L2的启动量比L2对L1的启动量大。当启动词与目标词具有语义联想关系时, 启动词亦能促进对目标词的识别, 但L1→L2与L2→L1的启动量差异不显著。整个研究表明, 非熟练潮-粤双言者的两种方言的词汇独立表征, 语义共享表征; 第二方言的词汇能够直接通达语义表征, 不需要以第一方言的词汇为中介, 但双言的词汇表征与语义表征的联结强度仍然存在着不对称性。     

Bilinguals Show Weaker Lexical Access During Spoken Sentence Comprehension

When bilinguals process written language, they show delays in accessing lexical items relative to monolinguals. The present study investigated whether this effect extended to spoken language comprehension, examining the processing of sentences with either low or high semantic constraint in both first and second languages. English-German bilinguals, German-English bilinguals and English monolinguals listened for target words in spoken English sentences while their eye-movements were recorded. Bilinguals’ eye-movements reflected weaker lexical access relative to monolinguals; furthermore, the effect of semantic constraint differed across first versus second language processing. Specifically, English-native bilinguals showed fewer overall looks to target items, regardless of sentence constraint; German-native bilinguals activated target items more slowly and maintained target activation over a longer period of time in the low-constraint condition compared with monolinguals. No eye movements to cross-linguistic competitors were observed, suggesting that these lexical access disadvantages were present during bilingual spoken sentence comprehension even in the absence of overt interlingual competition.