Drinking to regulate negative romantic relationship interactions: The moderating role of self-esteem

A 30-day diary study examined the relations among trait self-esteem, negative romantic relationship interactions, and alcohol consumption. Multilevel analyses revealed that people with low trait self-esteem (compared with people with high trait self-esteem) drank more on days when they experienced more negative relationship interactions with their romantic partners. In addition, daily increases in state self-esteem buffered people with low trait self-esteem from the desire to drink in response to negative romantic relationship interactions. In contrast, participants with high and low self-esteem both decreased their drinking in response to negative non-romantic relationship events, but people with low self-esteem decreased their drinking less. These findings suggest that people with low trait self-esteem may drink as a way to regulate unfulfilled needs for acceptance.     

The unconscious cost of good fortune: implicit and explicit self-esteem, positive life events, and health.

J. D. Brown and K. L. McGill (1989) found that positive life events were associated with better health only for people high in self-esteem. Among people low in self-esteem, positive life events were associated with poorer health. The authors of this study replicated this finding in a self-report survey of 61 male and 110 female college students. In addition, they showed that implicit self-esteem moderated the relation between positive life events and self-reported health in the same fashion as explicit self-esteem did. Whereas people high in implicit self-esteem reported being healthier when they experienced more positive life events, people low in implicit self-esteem reported being healthier when they experienced fewer positive life events. Moreover, the effects of implicit self-esteem were statistically independent of the effects of explicit self-esteem.     

Fluctuations in state implicit self-esteem in response to daily negative events

A repeated assessment study examined changes in state implicit self-esteem after negative events. Multilevel analyses revealed that trait explicit self-esteem and self-concept clarity moderated the within-person association between daily negative events and state implicit self-esteem. People with low trait explicit self-esteem or low self-concept clarity experienced decreases in state implicit self-esteem when they experienced negative life events. In contrast, for people with high trait explicit self-esteem or high self-concept clarity, state implicit self-esteem remained stable after negative events. In addition, changes in state implicit self-esteem remained significant after controlling for state explicit self-esteem and daily negative affect. This study is the first to study changes in implicit self-esteem in the context of daily life events.     

Putting the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol use into context: A daily diary investigation of drinking in response to embarrassing events

The goal of this study was to clarify mixed findings regarding the association between dispositional social anxiety and drinking among college students by using a daily diary method to examine whether a within-person social-contextual event moderated the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol use. College students (n = 476) completed a measure of dispositional social anxiety and then for 30 days reported whether they experienced an embarrassing event in public and the amount of alcohol they drank each day. We examined whether experiencing an embarrassing event moderated the relationship between dispositional social anxiety and alcohol use for same-day, same-evening, next-day, and next-evening drinking. While there was a positive relationship between dispositional social anxiety and alcohol use on evenings when an embarrassing event occurred earlier that day, this appeared to be driven by a reduction in drinking among those low in social anxiety. Individuals with high social anxiety drank in the evening regardless of embarrassing event occurrence. Results suggest that people with low social anxiety show an adaptive response to embarrassing events by lowering drinking on such evenings, while those with high social anxiety may drink to reduce their already high levels of anxiety independent of daily social events.     

内隐自尊和风险偏好对大学生职业决策的影响

为研究影响大学生职业决策的影响因素和决策有效性,实验一、二分别从决策者心理特征（内隐自尊与风险偏好）和职业方案特征（框架效应与风险水平）入手,考察二者对大学生职业决策行为的影响。结果发现：内隐自尊和风险偏好的高低显著影响大学生择业倾向性;大学生对风险水平不同的职业方案的选择倾向由低到高依次为冒险、折中、保守方案;职业决策存在明显的框架效应。研究表明,大多数大学生倾向于选择保守的职业方案;高风险偏好的大学生倾向于选择冒险的职业方案;高内隐自尊大学生倾向于主动择业;积极表述的职业方案更受大学生所青睐。     

内隐自尊的功能:缓冲器,还是滤波器

用内隐联想测验（IAT）测量被试的内隐自尊,通过成败操纵来检验内隐自尊的缓冲器假设。研究发现,无论面对成功反馈还是失败反馈,高内隐自尊者对自己的表现均比较满意,且成功时的满意度显著高于失败时的满意度;低内隐自尊者面对成功时对自己的表现满意,面对失败时对自己的表现不满意,且二者差异显著。这表明内隐自尊可能并非具有缓冲作用,而是具有滤波作用。较之低内隐自尊者,高内隐自尊者在应对压力或威胁时能够更多地过滤负面效应。据此,本文提出了内隐自尊的滤波器假设。     

泛文化的自尊——基于中国大学生的研究证据

过去一直认为,自尊是人类普遍的需要,是泛文化的。但是,过去十多年来,这一观点受到严重挑战。其主要理由是许多跨文化的研究显示集体主义文化下个体的自尊显著低于西方,少有自我促进的迹象。但是,几乎所有这样的证据都是来自自陈式测量。由于自陈式测量难以避免自我展现（Self-presentation）或社会期许（Social Desirability）的影响,并且严重依赖于个体的自我报告,本研究采用新的能够防止社会期许的影响并能触及无意识的内隐测量——阈下评价性启动（Subliminal Evaluative Priming）程序,对中国大学生的自尊进行了研究。结果发现中国大学生对自我持有显著的积极、肯定的评价,中国人存在内隐自尊。这表明,集体主义文化下的个体的自尊需要是存在的,只是以内隐的方式表现或在自我展现的影响最小化后表现出来。这一发现和自尊的泛文化论是一致的     

Daily interpersonal experiences, context, and alcohol consumption: crying in your beer and toasting good times

The authors explored a multidimensional view of drinking, whereby social and solitary drinking represent distinct behaviors associated with positive and negative experiences, respectively. Using daily diary methodology and multilevel analytic strategy, the authors examined, over 30 days, the within-person association of negative and positive experiences and alcohol consumption in different contexts and focused on interpersonal experiences. On days with more negative interpersonal experiences, participants engaged in more solitary drinking (i.e., drinking at home and alone), whereas on days with more positive interpersonal experiences they drank more in social contexts. The authors also demonstrated that individuals high on neuroticism drank more in solitary contexts on days with more negative interpersonal experiences, relative to those with lower neuroticism. These findings lend support to models linking daily drinking motivation and context-dependent drinking behavior.     

Drinking to belong: The effect of a friendship threat and self-esteem on college student drinking

The current study examined how implicit and explicit self-esteem and time spent drinking with friends influence college student drinking after a friendship threat manipulation. Poisson regression analyses revealed that students with low implicit self-esteem showed a greater increase in alcohol consumption when drinking with friends after experiencing a friendship threat than in the control condition. These effects were not found among students with high implicit self-esteem. A similar, but weaker, pattern emerged when testing the independent effects of explicit self-esteem. We suggest that low self-esteem students are drinking because they lack the self-resources to deal with unmet belongingness needs. These findings suggest that low implicit self-esteem may be a risk factor for college student drinking.     

Intuition and the correspondence between implicit and explicit self-esteem

Four studies tested whether the perceived validity of intuition increases the correspondence between implicit and explicit self-esteem. Studies 1 and 2 found, with 2 different measures of implicit self-esteem, that people who chronically view their intuition as valid have more consistent implicit and explicit self-esteem. In contrast, people with relatively low faith in their intuition had a negative relation between implicit and explicit self-esteem, suggesting that they may overcorrect their explicit self-views for the potential bias posed by implicit self-esteem. In Studies 3 and 4, participants who were induced to view their intuition as valid reported explicit self-views (self-evaluations made under time pressure, or state self-esteem) that were more consistent with their implicit self-esteem. These results suggest that people experience implicit self-esteem as intuitive evaluations. The correspondence between implicit and explicit self-esteem among individuals who view their intuition as valid may suggest that these individuals incorporate implicit self-esteem into their explicit self-views.     

Intimates as agents of social support: sources of consolation or despair?

We proposed that people's intimates may insulate them against self-discrepant feedback. Individuals who possessed low or high self-esteem (targets) reported to the laboratory accompanied by persons with whom they were involved in intimate relationships (intimates). Some intimates perceived targets in a manner that was congruent with targets' self-conceptions; others perceived targets in a manner that was incongruent with targets' self-conceptions. Targets received bogus feedback that was discrepant with their self-esteem and interacted with either their intimate or a stranger. Targets then completed a measure of self-esteem. As expected, targets changed their self-ratings in the direction of the discrepant feedback when they interacted with either an incongruent intimate or a stranger but not when they interacted with a congruent intimate. Moreover, congruent intimates were just as effective in insulating low self-esteem targets against positive feedback as they were in insulating high self-esteem individuals against negative feedback. Finally, the more targets discussed the feedback, the less self-rating change they experienced. Implications for social support processes and attempts to cope with traumatic events are discussed.     

决策者角色及相关变量对风险偏好的影响

采用IAT技术测查被试的内隐自尊, 并引入收益和损失两种任务框架, 综合探讨了内隐自尊水平、任务得失框架对自我决策和为他人决策时风险偏好的影响。结果发现：(1)在收益框架下, 被试为他人决策时更冒险, 而在损失框架下, 为自我和他人决策的风险偏好无显著差异; (2)与为自我决策相比, 低内隐自尊者为他人决策时更冒险, 而高内隐自尊者为自我和他人决策的风险偏好无显著差异; (3)内隐自尊水平与任务框架的交互作用及内隐自尊水平、任务框架和决策者角色之间的三级交互作用均不显著。依据相关的理论和发现对这种结果进行了分析和讨论。     

人格操纵对内隐自尊的影响及其与外显自尊的关系

该研究使用内隐联想测验测量了人格反馈操纵前后被试的内隐自尊水平,同时探究了不同外显自尊水平被试内隐自尊水平的差异。结果表明,被试会出现显著的内隐自尊效应;人格反馈操纵对内隐自尊起抑制作用,正负反馈的影响存在差异;外显与内隐自尊产生分离。     

Self-Esteem, Mood, and Intentions to Use Condoms: When Does Low Self-Esteem Lead to Risky Health Behaviors?

The authors assessed the interactive effects of self-esteem and mood on intentions to engage in unprotected sexual intercourse. Prior research has shown that people with low self-esteem tend to evaluate themselves unfavorably when in a negative mood state, whereas people with high self-esteem are less susceptible to changes in self-evaluation following a negative mood induction. The authors hypothesized that people who engage in negative self-evaluations may be more likely to report intentions to engage in unprotected sexual intercourse. Undergraduate females were randomly assigned to a positive or negative mood induction condition. Consistent with their hypotheses, the authors found that among participants who were in a negative mood state, those with low self-esteem were more likely to report intentions to have sexual intercourse without a condom than were those with high self-esteem. In contrast, among participants in a positive mood, there were no differences between those who were low and high in self-esteem.     

不同自尊者在赌博情境下的风险规避行为

为了考察不同自尊水平的个体在赌博情境下的风险规避行为,263名大学生被试同时完成外显Rosenberg量表、内隐联想测验和21点赌博游戏。实验结果发现,(1)随着风险的增加,所有被试都表现出风险规避;(2)在高外显自尊水平的个体中,低内隐自尊水平个体比高内隐自尊水平个体表现出更多的风险规避行为;在低内隐自尊的个体中,高外显自尊个体比低外显自尊个体表现出更多的风险规避行为。风险规避行为间接地反映出个体的防御倾向,结果提示,在风险情境中,高外显低内隐自尊个体表现出较高的自我防御倾向。     

Social anxiety and emotion regulation in daily life: spillover effects on positive and negative social events

To minimize the possibility of scrutiny, people with social anxiety difficulties exert great effort to manage their emotions, particularly during social interactions. We examined how the use of two emotion regulation strategies, emotion suppression and cognitive reappraisal, predict the generation of emotions and social events in daily life. Over 14 consecutive days, 89 participants completed daily diary entries on emotions, positive and negative social events, and their regulation of emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we found that when people high in social anxiety relied more on positive emotion suppression, they reported fewer positive social events and less positive emotion on the subsequent day. In contrast, people low in social anxiety reported fewer negative social events on days subsequent to using cognitive reappraisal to reduce distress; the use of cognitive reappraisal did not influence the daily lives of people high in social anxiety. Our findings support theories of emotion regulation difficulties associated with social anxiety. In particular, for people high in social anxiety, maladaptive strategy use contributed to diminished reward responsiveness.     

自尊水平与评价性信息的选择性记忆

245名被试完成外显Rosenberg量表、内隐IAT测验和记忆测验。实验结果发现,1）外显自尊有效地预测消极信息的回忆量,低外显自尊个体对消极信息的回忆量显著高于高外显自尊个体,而两类被试对积极信息的回忆量上差异不显著,实验结果证实了相关模型的假设。2）无论是积极信息的回忆率还是消极信息的回忆率,不同内隐自尊水平的个体的回忆量差异不显著,外显自尊与内隐自尊的交互作用与其关系也不紧密,试图通过外显手段区分内隐层面上有差异的两类个体,似乎是行不通的。     

不同自尊者对自我相关信息的记忆偏好

研究主要采用4(自尊类型)×2(词汇效价)混合设计,探讨了178名不同自尊水平或不同自尊类型大学生对自我相关信息的记忆偏好。结果发现:(1)高外显自尊者比低自尊者有更积极的记忆偏好,消极记忆偏好差异不显著;高内隐自尊者则比低自尊者有更弱的积极回忆偏好及更弱的消极回忆偏好。(2)就作为组内差异存在的记忆偏好而言,所有被试均有积极偏好;就作为组间差异存在的记忆偏好而言,脆弱的高自尊者有更强的积极偏好,但低自尊者也没有表现出明显的消极偏好。结果提示不同自尊者对自我相关信息有不同记忆偏好。     

Contingencies of self-worth, academic failure, and goal pursuit

Two studies examine the effects of failure on explicit and implicit self-esteem, affect, and self-presentation goals as a function of people's trait self-esteem and academic contingency of self-worth. Study 1 shows that participants with low self-esteem (LSE) who receive failure feedback experience lower state self-esteem, less positive affect, and less desire to be perceived as competent the more they base self-worth on academics. In contrast, participants with high self-esteem (HSE) who strongly base self-worth on academics show a slight boost in state self-esteem and desire to be perceived as competent following failure. Study 2 shows that following failure, academically contingent LSE participants downplay the importance of appearing competent to others and associate themselves with failure on an implicit level. Taken together, these findings suggest that academically contingent HSE people show resilience following failure, whereas academically contingent LSE people experience negative outcomes and disengage from the pursuit of competence self-presentation goals.