汉语发展性阅读障碍亚类型的初步探讨

以阅读水平匹配组为参照对29名汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的认知缺陷模式进行了分析,并考察了不同亚类型阅读障碍儿童的汉字识别模式。结果表明汉语发展性阅读障碍存在不同的亚类型,以语音缺陷型、快速命名缺陷型及两者结合的双重缺陷型为主,与英语国家研究中的双重缺陷假设一致。语音缺陷型儿童汉字识别时有更多的语义错误,对声旁中的部分语音线索不敏感;快速命名缺陷型儿童汉字识别时依赖声旁语音线索,表现出阅读发展的一般延迟;双重或多重认知缺陷型是阅读损伤最严重的亚类型     

发展性阅读障碍亚类型研究进展

发展性阅读障碍是一种特殊的学习障碍,伴有多种认知缺陷并且存在不同的亚类型。依据相关的阅读模型理论,阅读障碍可划分为语音型和表层型。从认知缺陷角度出发,语音加工缺陷是主要的缺陷表现,以此为特征形成一种主要的阅读障碍的亚类型,同时还有以正字法加工缺陷和快速命名缺陷为主的其他亚类型。而以基本感知觉缺陷为标准,主要有以视觉加工缺陷和以听觉加工缺陷为主的两种亚类型。在汉语条件下,依据同样的阅读模型理论,语音型阅读障碍亚类型比例明显低于拼音文字条件下的。汉语阅读障碍也具有分别以语音加工缺陷、快速命名缺陷和正字法加工缺陷为主要认知缺陷的亚类型。未来有必要从神经机制角度进一步明确不同亚类型的神经基础。     

阅读发展相关的认知技能：汉语和英语的比较

对英语和汉语阅读获得所需要的认知技能及发展性阅读障碍儿童认知缺陷的研究进行了回顾。分析表明阅读发展所需认知资源表现出了跨语言的一致性,都要求有充足的学习与记忆能力和正常的视觉正字法技能,语音和语义知识表征足够精细;阅读障碍儿童的主要认知缺陷也表现出了跨文字的一致性,都包括语音缺陷和一般的学习与记忆问题。然而儿童所面临的语言文字特性会影响到阅读技能获得的难易和发展性阅读障碍的表现     

获得性阅读障碍的“主要系统”假说

认知神经心理学为阅读机制的探讨提供了大量的证据,认为不同阅读障碍是不同加工通道选择性受损的结果。近年来,基于联结主义的三角模型理论,研究者提出了主要系统假说（primary system hypothesis）,认为阅读障碍是主要的认知系统（如视觉、语义和语音系统）受损导致的：表层障碍是因为语义系统受损导致的阅读困难,语音和深层障碍是语音和语义系统同时受损时综合症状的连续体。该理论认为各主要系统可能同时是多个认知活动的加工成分,一个系统的受损会影响所有与之相关的认知过程,从而把阅读障碍与其它认知功能障碍联系起来。统一的主要系统受损下对各种获得性阅读障碍形成机制在文中得到详细的解释     

The cognitive profile and multiple-deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia

The present study was conducted to examine the cognitive profile and multiple-deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Thirty Chinese dyslexic children in Hong Kong were compared with 30 average readers of the same chronological age (CA controls) and 30 average readers of the same reading level (RL controls) in a number of rapid naming, visual, phonological, and orthographic tasks. Chinese dyslexic children performed significantly worse than the CA controls but similarly to the RL controls on most of the cognitive tasks. The rapid naming deficit was found to be the most dominant type of cognitive deficit in Chinese dyslexic children. Over half of the dyslexic children exhibited deficits in 3 or more cognitive areas, and there was a significant association between the number of cognitive deficits and the degree of reading and spelling impairment. The present findings support the multiple-deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia.     

Impaired oral reading in two atypical dyslexics: a comparison with a computational lexical-analogy model

A computational model of reading was developed based upon the notion that the structural relationship between orthography and phonology is of greater importance than the dimension of semantics for the reading aloud of single words. Degradation of this model successfully simulated the reading performance of two patients with atypical acquired dyslexia. The first patient CAV, studied and described in the literature by Warrington in 1981, presented with unusual concrete word dyslexia, i.e., he had a category-specific reading deficit for concrete words compared with abstract words. The second patient BG is a phonological dyslexic who, although displaying a strong concreteness effect (concrete words read better than abstract words), was able to read functors individually perfectly well, a pattern that is rarely if ever seen. The computational model was used to generate a set of words for which it was predicted that BG would show no concreteness effect. The results of BG's reading of these words were consistent with this prediction, thereby providing greater support for the validity of the model. It is concluded that a computational approach that attempts not only to reproduce the core symptoms of the major varieties of acquired dyslexia but also to simulate clinical data from specific patients has much to contribute to the understanding of cognitive deficits and to the design of effective rehabilitation strategies.     

The Effect of Parents’ Literacy Skills and Children’s Preliteracy Skills on the Risk of Dyslexia

The combination of investigating child and family characteristics sheds light on the constellation of risk factors that can ultimately lead to dyslexia. This family-risk study examines plausible preschool risk factors and their specificity. Participants (N?=?196, 42 % girls) included familial risk (FR) children with and without dyslexia in Grade 3 and controls. First, we found impairments in phonological awareness, rapid naming, and letter knowledge in FR kindergartners with later dyslexia, and mild phonological-awareness deficits in FR kindergartners without subsequent dyslexia. These skills were better predictors of reading than arithmetic, except for rapid naming. Second, the literacy environment at home was comparable among groups. Third, having a dyslexic parent and literacy abilities of the non-dyslexic parent related to offspring risk of dyslexia. Parental literacy abilities might be viewed as indicators of offspring’s liability for literacy difficulties, since parents provide offspring with genetic and environmental endowment. We propose an intergenerational multiple deficit model in which both parents confer cognitive risks.     

Dyslexia and dyscalculia: Two learning disorders with different cognitive profiles

This study tests the hypothesis that dyslexia and dyscalculia are associated with two largely independent cognitive deficits, namely a phonological deficit in the case of dyslexia and a deficit in the number module in the case of dyscalculia. In four groups of 8- to 10-year-olds (42 control, 21 dyslexic, 20 dyscalculic, and 26 dyslexic/dyscalculic), phonological awareness, phonological and visual-spatial short-term and working memory, naming speed, and basic number processing skills were assessed. A phonological deficit was found for both dyslexic groups, irrespective of additional arithmetic deficits, but not for the dyscalculia-only group. In contrast, deficits in processing of symbolic and nonsymbolic magnitudes were observed in both groups of dyscalculic children, irrespective of additional reading difficulties, but not in the dyslexia-only group. Cognitive deficits in the comorbid dyslexia/dyscalculia group were additive; that is, they resulted from the combination of two learning disorders. These findings suggest that dyslexia and dyscalculia have separable cognitive profiles, namely a phonological deficit in the case of dyslexia and a deficient number module in the case of dyscalculia.     

Phoneme awareness is a key component of alphabetic literacy skills in consistent and inconsistent orthographies: evidence from Czech and English children

Two studies investigated the importance of phoneme awareness relative to other predictors in the development of reading and spelling among children learning a consistent orthography (Czech) and an inconsistent orthography (English). In Study 1, structural equation models revealed that Czech (n=107) and English (n=71) data were fitted well by the same predictors of reading and spelling. Phoneme awareness was a unique predictor in all models. In Study 2, Czech (n=40) and English (n=27) children with dyslexia showed similar deficits on phoneme awareness relative to their age- and spelling-matched control peers. Phoneme awareness appears to be a core component skill of alphabetic literacy, which is equally important for learners of consistent and inconsistent orthographies.     

汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的视知觉学习*

研究采用知觉学习经典范式中的视觉搜索任务探讨汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的知觉学习过程。研究考察了阅读障碍儿童与正常儿童在简单搜索任务、复杂搜索任务和限制时间的复杂搜索任务上的知觉学习特点。结果发现,阅读障碍儿童在复杂搜索任务中初始搜索时间显著长于正常控制组;在限制时间的复杂搜索任务中更进一步发现阅读障碍儿童的反应正确率显著低于正常控制组儿童;而且两组儿童视觉搜索任务的正确率与汉语阅读的识字量成绩存在显著相关。上述结果表明,汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童存在复杂搜索的知觉学习缺陷,这种缺陷可能在某种程度上与儿童的阅读技能发展有关。     

Reading and Spelling Disabilities in Children with and Without a History of Early Language Delay: A Neuropsychological and Linguistic Study

Language delay is a frequent antecedent of literacy problems, and both may be linked to phonological impairment. Studies on developmental dyslexia have led to contradictory results due to the heterogeneity of the pathological samples. The present study investigated whether Italian children with dyslexia showed selective phonological processing deficits or more widespread linguistic impairment and whether these deficits were associated with previous language delay. We chose 46 children with specific reading deficits and divided them into two groups based on whether they had language delay (LD) or not (NoLD). LD and NoLD children showed similar, severe deficits in reading and spelling decoding, but only LD children showed a moderate impairment in reading comprehension. LD children were more impaired in phonological working memory and phonological fluency, as well as in semantic fluency, grammatical comprehension, and verbal IQ. These findings indicate the presence of a moderate but widespread linguistic deficit (not limited to phonological processing) in a subset of dyslexic children with previous language delay that does not generalize to all children with reading difficulties.     

基于PASS模型的汉语阅读障碍认知加工特点的实验研究

研究以智力的PASS认知模型为基础,考察了3-5年级阅读障碍组和正常对照组的PASS认知加工特点,探究汉语阅读障碍儿童的PASS认知缺陷模式,为后期的干预提供理论上的支持和帮助。结果发现,PASS四个认知加工均存在明显的年级差异,低年级儿童的PASS认知加工能力明显不如中高年级儿童。汉语阅读障碍儿童在DN: CAS 12项分任务上的成绩均低于正常对照组儿童。同时,大多数汉语阅读障碍儿童存在不止一种的PASS认知加工缺陷,即汉语发展性阅读障碍内部是一个异质群体;阅读障碍儿童在继时性加工上存在的问题最为严重,存在缺陷的人数也最多。     

发展性阅读障碍的噪音抑制缺陷

发展性阅读障碍的缺陷本质一直是研究者们关注和争论的焦点。近些年, 有研究者提出了一种新的理论假设——噪音抑制缺陷假设, 并得到了许多研究证据的支持。这种缺陷在视觉和听觉通道中均存在, 说明阅读障碍具有多感觉/一般性噪音抑制缺陷。但也有研究者指出知觉噪音抑制本质上反映了注意的功能, 因而这种缺陷可能是由注意缺陷导致的。目前还缺乏直接证据支持汉语阅读障碍存在噪音抑制缺陷。最后本文对该领域未来的发展方向做出展望。     

Hyperlexia profiles

Two hyperlexic individuals were tested on reading outcome measures and on basic skills shown to be critical in reading acquisition. Results suggested distinct pathways to superior word recognition skills that can be described under a contemporary model of skilled reading, with differential acquisition of basic skills; superior word recognition skill was associated in both cases with specialized development in one basic area, that of orthographic processing. Results supported an asset rather than a deficit analysis of hyperlexia: Rather than assimilating to reading pathology (dyslexia) subtypes, hyperlexia was seen to be accompanied by assets that are absent in dyslexic profiles.     

Specific disorders and broader phenotypes: the case of dyslexia

Two studies investigating the cognitive phenotype of dyslexia are described. Study 1 compared three groups of English and Italian children on speed of processing tasks: (a) children with dyslexia, (b) generally delayed poor readers and (c) CA-controls. In tests of simple and choice reaction time and two visual scanning tasks, children with dyslexia performed like controls and significantly faster than generally delayed poor readers. A second prospective longitudinal investigation of children at family risk of dyslexia showed that problems of literacy development were less circumscribed, with affected children showing phonological deficits in the context of more general oral language difficulties. An important finding was that the risk of dyslexia was continuous in this sample; among at-risk children with normal literacy development, mild impairments of phonological skills were apparent early in development, and subtle difficulties with reading fluency and spelling emerged in early adolescence. A case series extended these findings to show that phonological deficits alone are insufficient to explain literacy difficulties, and it is children with multiple deficits (including language problems) that are more likely to succumb to reading failure.     

What can autism and dyslexia tell us about intelligence?

This paper argues that understanding developmental disorders requires developing theories and models that explicitly represent the role of general intelligence in the cognitive phenotype of the disorder. In the case of autism it is argued that the low-IQ scores of people with autism are not likely to be due to a deficit in the cognitive process that is arguably the major cause of mental retardation - namely, speed of processing - but rather low IQ reflects the pervasive and cascading effects of the deficit in the information-processing module that causes autism. In the case of dyslexia, two radically different models of reading disorder (ability = disability and a modular deficit model) are likely to be influenced by the effect of general intelligence on reading performance in ways that will remain unclear without an explicit model of how general intelligence influences reading.     

阅读障碍儿童的形音捆绑缺陷及其脑神经机制

形音捆绑缺陷研究是国内外阅读障碍研究领域的一个新方向。本文阐述了形音捆绑加工的理论与定义,综述了国内外研究者经常采用的三种形音捆绑的研究范式:配对联想学习、变化检测范式和线索回忆任务,介绍并分析了各研究范式的优缺点、适用范围及主要研究发现。同时,综述与评价了国内外有关阅读障碍形音捆绑缺陷的脑机制研究的主要结论及不足。最后,本文讨论了现有研究在实验设计和理论上的贡献与不足,提出了今后的研究方向和改进建议。     

Phonological dyslexia: a test case for reading models

Following brain damage, skilled readers may encounter more severe problems in reading nonwords than familiar words, a type of deficit referred to as phonological dyslexia. We report on 2 individuals with Alzheimer's disease who show phonological dyslexia. Although highly accurate in reading familiar words aloud (even those with irregular spelling, such as sew), they were quite impaired in nonword reading. Both patients performed well in phonological tasks involving the repetition, identification, and manipulation of phonemes of orally presented words and nonwords. These results challenge the idea, proposed in the context of connectionist and evolutionary theories, that phonological dyslexia originates from a phonological deficit. However, the results are consistent with reading models, such as the dual-route model, that attribute phonological dyslexia to a deficit that selectively affects the reading mechanisms responsible for deriving the sounds of nonwords. According to these models, such a deficit is not necessarily accompanied by a more general phonological impairment.     

Unilateral implicit motor learning deficit in developmental dyslexia

It has been suggested that developmental dyslexia involves various literacy, sensory, motor skill, and processing speed deficits. Some recent studies have shown that individuals with developmental dyslexia exhibit implicit motor learning deficits, which may be related to cerebellar functioning. However, previous studies on implicit motor learning in developmental dyslexics have produced conflicting results. Findings from cerebellar lesion patients have shown that patients' implicit motor learning performance varied when different hands were used to complete tasks. This suggests that dyslexia may have different effects on implicit motor learning between the two hands if cerebellar dysfunction is involved. To specify this question, we used a one-handed version of a serial reaction time task to compare the performance of 27 Chinese children with developmental dyslexics with another 27 age-matched children without reading difficulties. All the subjects were students from two primary schools, Grades 4 to 6. The results showed that children with developmental dyslexic responded more slowly than nondyslexic children, and exhibited no implicit motor learning in the condition of left-hand response. In contrast, there was no significant difference in reaction time between two groups of children when they used the right hand to respond. This finding indicates that children with developmental dyslexia exhibited normal motor skill and implicit motor learning ability provided the right hand was used. Taken together, these results suggested that Chinese children with developmental dyslexia exhibit unilateral deficits in motor skill and implicit motor learning in the left hand. Our findings lend partial support to the cerebellar deficit theory of developmental dyslexia.