EFFECTS OF SELF-EFFICACY AND POST-TRAINING INTERVENTION ON THE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPLEX INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

This study examined the effects of self-efficacy and a two-stage training process on the acquisition and maintenance (i.e., retention) of complex interpersonal skills. In stage one, all participants received basic training in negotiation skills; behavioral measures of negotiation performance were taken following this training. During stage two, alternative post-training interventions (goal setting and self-management) were offered to facilitate skill maintenance. Six weeks later, behavioral measures of performance were repeated. Results indicated that pre-test self-efficacy contributed positively to both initial and delayed performance. While training condition contributed to skill maintenance, self-efficacy also interacted with post-training method to influence delayed performance. Specifically, self-management training attenuated the self-efficacy performance relationship, while goal-setting training accentuated performance differences between high and low self-efficacy trainees. Implications of these findings are discussed for researchers and practitioners concerned with interpersonal skills training.     

Transfer of training: A field investigation of youth training

This study investigated, in the field, differences in the transfer and retention of training in using micrometers, of two groups of young trainees. The experimental group were motor-vehicle servicing trainees and the control group were information technology trainees. The results showed that (i) there was no difference between trainees of the two groups in end-of-training tests when they were trained from scratch, though the information technology trainees retained the skill better; (ii) experimental subjects, who had learned the micrometer skill one year previously, were more effectively trained to use it in a new trade than were control subjects, who lacked previous experience; (iii) experimental subjects, who had learned the micrometer skill one year previously, were not more effectively trained to use a vernier height-gauge. Results are discussed in terms of the level of skill at which a possible transfer mechanism may be supposed to operate. Evidence is presented of effective transfer of training between two skills very closely related at the motor level. Failure of transfer of training between two skills related at a somewhat higher level of abstraction is shown. The question of transfer of training between two skills not closely related at these lower levels, but related at a yet higher level of abstraction, is discussed.     

Effects of Practice Conditions and Supplemental Training Method on Cognitive Learning and Interpersonal Skill Generalization

Organizational expenditures for interpersonal-skills training have been rising. However, little is known about the translation of cognitive learning into skilled interpersonal-task performance, or about the mechanisms through which interpersonal skills in one domain generalize to other interpersonal tasks. This study used a 2 × 2 experimental design to examine the effectiveness of neutral versus stressful practice conditions and mastery-versus performance-oriented supplemental training for improving cognitive learning and interpersonal-skill transfer to a novel task. Participants who experienced stressful salary-negotiation practice conditions, followed by mastery-oriented supplemental training, showed greater skill transfer when performing a novel task (i.e., contract negotiations). Results showed that superior cognitive learning (i.e., recall, comprehension, and synthesis) and greater time on task were the mechanisms that supported interpersonal-skill transfer for trainees in the stressful practice/ mastery-oriented training condition when compared with the other experimental groups.     

Age differences in skill acquisition and transfer in an implicit learning paradigm

Age differences in learning a complex cognitive skill are examined. The type of knowledge gained and levels of performance and transfer achieved, under different practice conditions, were compared in younger and older groups of trainees. The development of verbalizable knowledge about the task but not task performance itself varied as a function of age and practice condition. All trainees achieved transfer to novel versions of the task but older subjects appeared restricted to tasks drawn from the same semantic domain. The implications of these findings for developing training programmes for older workers are discussed.     

Perceptions of Training-Related Factors and Personal Variables as Predictors of Transfer Implementation Intentions

A number of factors influence the outcomes of computer skills training and the likelihood of successful transfer. The first empirical test of a conceptual model of training transfer sought to explain how trainees' perceptions of various in-training transfer-enhancing activities such as overlearning, fidelity, stimulus variability, principles-meaningfulness, self-management activities, relapse prevention, and goal setting would predict the self-efficacy and implementation intentions (rather than actual transfer outcomes) of computer skills trainees. As expected, posttraining self-efficacy and transfer enhancing activities both predicted transfer implementation intentions. Pretraining self-efficacy also significantly predicted posttraining self-efficacy, trainees' level of learning during training and transfer enhancing activities, providing support for the conceptual model of training transfer.     

EVALUATION OF THE GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF A PEER-TRAINING PROCEDURE WITH MODERATELY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS

The use of peer-training procedures by moderately mentally retarded adolescents was evaluated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 2 students received instruction on peer-training skills to teach a vocational task to 7 classmates. Following instruction, both peer trainers were successful in teaching their classmates to perform the target task and a second untrained (generalization) task. In Experiment 2, 1 peer trainer taught 3 peers to use picture prompts to complete one or two complex vocational tasks. Following instruction by the peer trainer, the trainees independently used novel pictures on novel tasks. The results of both experiments indicate that peer training with moderately handicapped students can be an effective instructional procedure, with generalization occurring for both the trainers (Experiment 1) and the trainees (Experiment 2).     

Effects of Training Goals and Goal Orientation Traits on Multidimensional Training Outcomes and Performance Adaptability

This research examined the effects of mastery vs. performance training goals and learning and performance goal orientation traits on multidimensional outcomes of training. Training outcomes included declarative knowledge, knowledge structure coherence, training performance, and self-efficacy. We also examined the unique impact of the training outcomes on performance adaptability by predicting generalization to a more difficult and complex version of the task. The experiment involved 60 trainees learning a complex computer simulation over 2 days. The research model posited independent effects for training goals relative to goal orientation traits and independent contributions of training outcomes to the performance adaptability of trainees. The findings were consistent with the proposed model. In particular, self-efficacy and knowledge structure coherence made unique contributions to the prediction of performance adaptability after controlling for prior training performance and declarative knowledge. Implications and extensions are discussed. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.     

Foreign Language Training Transfer: Individual and Contextual Predictors of Skill Maintenance and Generalization

Foreign language proficiency is a critical skill in which many U.S. military personnel receive extensive training. However, very little research has examined the factors associated with the successful transfer of this training. This study therefore investigates the impact of individual and contextual variables on two different types of foreign language skill transfer measures in a military context. Archival data were analyzed from 133 U.S. Army Special Forces (Green Berets) teams, including 919 Soldiers who had completed job-required foreign language training. Results indicate that initial skill acquisition had a positive impact on both the maintenance and generalization of language skills. The posttraining time interval between training and transfer measurement was negatively associated with skill maintenance, suggesting significant skill decay over time. The team context also accounted for significant variability in skill transfer, and the team mean skill level moderated the relationship between individual initial skill and subsequent generalization to job performance.     

Performance evaluations, need for cognition, and the acquisition of a complex skill: an attribute–treatment interaction

We proposed that intermittent evaluations of performance could be used to promote the acquisition of a complex skill. We also hypothesized that trainees low in need for cognition (NFC) would benefit more from intermittent evaluations compared to trainees high in NFC. Accordingly, 106 young adult males participated in 5 h of training in order to learn a complex computer task that simulated the demands of a dynamic aviation environment. Trainees’ performance was assessed either intermittently during training or at the end of training. Results indicated that intermittent performance evaluations enhanced the skill-based learning of trainees low in NFC, whereas intermittent skill evaluations tended to undermine the skill-based learning of trainees high in NFC. The findings are discussed in relation to Deci’s (1975) theory of intrinsic motivation and the need for more research examining attribute–treatment interactions with respect to training and skill acquisition.     

Cognitive Ability and Personality Predictors of Training Program Skill Acquisition and Job Performance

Two important issues in the training process concern (1) the relative impact of cognitive ability and personality traits on the ability to acquire skills, and (2) whether training skill acquisition predicts subsequent job performance. We used a sample of 9,793 trainees to address these questions and were able to compare those who succeeded on the job with those who did not succeed on the job. We found that some personality factors positively correlate with skill acquisition and that skill acquisition can predict the level of subsequent job performance.     

GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT GENERALIZATION: HOW A THEORY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT EXPLAINS BOTH GENERALITY AND SPECIFICITY*

Within a skill-theory framework, the traditional opposition between generalization and specificity is resolved. Neither generalization nor specificity is considered the normal state. Instead, they are both phenomena that can be predicted and explained in terms of skill structures and functional mechanisms of development or learning. A person acquires a skill in a specific context and must work to gradually extend it to other contexts. Within a task domain and across related domains, a set of structural transformations predict the order of generalization of the skill. Range of generalization of a given skill at a point in time varies widely across people and situations as a function of specified functional mechanisms. Generalization is maximized when (a) tasks are similar and familiar, (b) the environment provides opportunities for practice and support, (c) the person has had time to consolidate skills at the relevant developmental level, and (d) he or she is intelligent and in an emotional state facilitative of the particular skill. True generalization must be distinguished from optimal-level synchrony, where new capacities emerge across domains as a new developmental level emerges.     

EVALUATION OF TASK AND JOB SKILL LINKAGE JUDGMENTS USED TO DEVELOP TEST SPECIFICATIONS

The research on job analysis judgments, such as "time spent," has been relatively limited, particularly with reference to external criteria remote from the job analysis operation. The more complex job analysis judgment linking a job skill to specific tasks or duties has not been systematically examined. While it would appear that a simple scaling of importance of a skill for a task or duty or a retranslation judgment would suffice, the fact is that a single job skill may be a prerequisite for performance in a variety of tasks, and any one task may require multiple skills of varying levels for effective performance. With a multiple assignment of tasks to job skills, the evaluation becomes considerably more difficult. In the present study, a sequence of statistical evaluations was conducted to examine, first, the reliability of the subject matter expert (SME) panel's association of tasks and job skills and, second, the factor structure of the task by job skill relationship. The results are discussed with reference to developing selection test specifications and test budgets.     

Mental rotation: cross-task training and generalization

It is well established that performance on standard mental rotation tasks improves with training (Peters et al., 1995), but thus far there is little consensus regarding the degree of transfer to other tasks which also involve mental rotation. In Experiment 1, we assessed the effect of mental rotation training on participants' Mental Rotation Test (MRT) scores. Twenty-eight participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a "One-Day Training," "Spaced Training," or "No Training" group. Participants who received training achieved higher scores on the MRT, an advantage that was still evident after 1 week. Distribution of training did not affect performance. Experiment 2 assessed generalization of mental rotation training to a more complex mental rotation task, laparoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic surgical skills were assessed using Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) tasks. Thirty-four participants were randomly assigned to a "Full Mental Rotation Training, MRT and FLS," "MRT and FLS," or "FLS-only" group. MRT results from Experiment 1 were replicated and mental rotation training was found to elicit higher scores on the MRT. Further, mental rotation training was found to generalize to certain laparoscopic surgical tasks. Participants who obtained mental rotation training performed significantly better on mental-rotation dependent surgical tasks than participants who did not receive training. Therefore, surgical training programs can use simple computer or paper-based mental rotation training instead of more expensive materials to enhance certain aspects of surgical performance of trainees.     

THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

Interprofessional Education: Psychology Trainee Experiences and Perspectives on Team Skills

Interprofessional education (IPE) is defined as educational activities involving trainees from two or more professions learning about, from, and with each other with the goal of building team-based collaboration skills. The degree to which psychology trainees are involved in IPE is unknown. A national survey was distributed to gather information regarding the nature and prevalence of IPE experiences and psychology trainees’ perceived competence in collaboration skills. Participant responses (n?=?143) are presented overall and by training level. Some respondents reported no IPE activities in their training, especially trainees earlier in their training. Highest rated competencies were in acting with honesty and integrity and developing/maintaining mutual respect and trust of other professions. Lowest rated were in giving feedback to others and managing differences in opinion. More research related to the nature and impact of IPE on psychology trainees is critical.

     

The acquisiton of time properties associated with a sequential motor skill

Three experiments are reported that examined the relative importance of phasing and duration training in the motor learning of a sequential task. In all three experiments, the task involved knocking down three barriers in a specified order. The Phasing task required the subject to contact each of the barriers in a particular goal time interval, that is, each segment had a particular movement-time goal. The Duration task required the subject to contact the final barrier in a total elapsed-time goal defined by the experimenter. Following training, half of the subjects in each training condition transferred to either a novel Duration or a novel Phasing task. Phasing-trained subjects, compared to Duration-trained subjects, produced equivalent transfer performance on the Duration transfer task but superior performance on the Phasing transfer task. These results suggest that phasing serves as a higher-order source of information for the performer in a sequential motor task. in addition, these experiments complement and extend previous work by Shapiro (1977) and Summers (1975) which demonstrated that learned phasing patterns were not modified despite changes in the overall rate of performing a motor sequence. Our experiments indicate that phasing training increases the performer's sensitivity to phasing patterns such that novel temporal patterns can be produced when they are well-defined.     

The Acquisition of Time Properties Associated with a Sequential Motor Skill

Three experiments are reported that examined the relative importance of phasing and duration training in the motor learning of a sequential task. In all three experiments, the task involved knocking down three barriers in a specified order. The Phasing task required the subject to contact each of the barriers in a particular goal time interval, that is, each segment had a particular movement-time goal. The Duration task required the subject to contact the final barrier in a total elapsed-time goal defined by the experimenter. Following training, half of the subjects in each training condition transferred to either a novel Duration or a novel Phasing task. Phasing-trained subjects, compared to Duration-trained subjects, produced equivalent transfer performance on the Duration transfer task but superior performance on the Phasing transfer task. These results suggest that phasing serves as a higher-order source of information for the performer in a sequential motor task. In addition, these experiments complement and extend previous work by Shapiro (1977) and Summers (1975) which demonstrated that learned phasing patterns were not modified despite changes in the overall rate of performing a motor sequence. Our experiments indicate that phasing training increases the performer’s sensitivity to phasing patterns such that novel temporal patterns can be produced when they are well-defined.     

Specificity and transfer effects in time production skill: examining the role of attention

Two experiments examined transfer of a prospective, time production skill under conditions involving changes in concurrent task requirements. Positive transfer of the time production skill might be expected only when the attentional demands of the concurrent task were held constant from training to test. However, some positive transfer was found even when the concurrent task at retraining was made either easier or more difficult than the concurrent task learned during training. The amount and direction of transfer depended more on the pacing of the stimuli in the secondary task than on the difficulty of the secondary task, even though difficulty affects attentional demands more. These findings are consistent with the procedural reinstatement principle of skill learning, by which transfer from one task to another depends on an overlap in procedures required by the two skills.     

Goal Setting by Groups Performing an Additive Task: A Comparison With Individual Goal Setting1

This article compares goal levels and task performance of groups and individuals that are assigned or self-set goals. Groups performed an additive task that allowed for direct comparison with individuals' i]ndependent performance of the task. Consistent with predictions, groups and individuals selected goals that were less difficult than assigned goals which required only a modest increase in performance. Group members and individuals who were assigned goals attained higher levels of performance than self-set or no goal condition subjects. The prediction that group members and individuals who self-set their goals would have more positive affective reactions to the goal-setting situation than participants in assigned condition was supported. The results of this study are consistent with the existing literature on groups and individuals regarding effects of goals, performance, and affective reactions. Analyses also indicate that the group goal decision process involves a compensatory strategy in which an average of group member preferences for the goal was used to reach a group goal decision. Discussion focuses on the similarities and differences between the findings of self-set and assigned goal-setting situations for groups and individuals, with particular reference to goal choice strategies, goal expectancies, and efficacy.     

Recognition of pictorial representations by chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes</Emphasis>)

In this study, I investigated chimpanzees' ability to recognize pictorial representations. Four adults and three juvenile chimpanzees were trained to choose images of photographs of flowers among 12 items belonging to four categories on a touch-sensitive monitor. As a generalization test, the following five types of images were presented: (1) novel photographs, (2) colored sketches (more realistic), (3) a colored clip art (cartoon-like images), (4) black-and-white line drawings, and (5) Kanji characters (as the control images). One adult and all three juvenile chimpanzees were able to choose any style of the nonphotographic images of flowers significantly above the chance level, whereas none could choose the correct Kanji characters corresponding to a flower significantly above the chance level. The other three adult chimpanzees' performance level did not exceed the chance level in terms of choosing nonphotographic images although they showed good transfer skills to novel photographs. The results revealed that not all chimpanzees could recognize pictures used by humans without training. The results also suggest "critical period" in acquisition of skill in recognizing pictures in chimpanzees. Only one adult chimpanzee, who had acquired skill in recognizing visual symbols, also recognized pictures aside from the juvenile chimpanzees. Her learning history might have aided her in acquiring this skill. The results of this study suggest a relationship between pictorial competence and symbolic one.