Stereotypes

Summary

This study investigated relations between Fiddler's esteem for the least preferred co-worker (LPC) measure, leader behavior, and group performance among 53 first-line supervisors of life insurance agents. The overall findings indicated that the relative amount of consideration given to subordinates increased with increased group performance. However, this general trend was particularly marked with respect to low LPC supervisors. It was concluded that LPC measures a triggered behavioral disposition reflecting the degree to which leaders are responsive to task-related feedback.     

Gender Stereotypes in the Family Context: Mothers, Fathers, and Siblings

Gender stereotypes of children and their parents were examined. Participants included 355 three-year-old children, their one-year-old siblings, and their mothers and fathers. Families were selected from the Western region of the Netherlands. Implicit gender stereotypes were assessed with computerized versions of the Action Inference Paradigm (AIP; both child and parents) and the Implicit Association Test (parent only). Parental explicit gender stereotypes were measured with the Child Rearing Sex-Role Attitude Scale. Findings revealed that mothers had stronger implicit gender stereotypes than fathers, whereas fathers had stronger explicit stereotypes than mothers. Fathers with same-gender children had stronger implicit gender stereotypes about adults than parents with mixed-gender children. For the children, girls’ implicit gender stereotypes were significantly predicted by their mother’s implicit gender stereotypes about children. This association could only be observed when the AIP was used to assess the stereotypes of both parent and child. A family systems model is applicable to the study of gender stereotypes.     

Researching the Family Theories of Schizophrenia: An Exercise in Epistemological Confusion

Some, but not all, of the family theories of schizophrenia entail a shift from the Aristotelian/Cartesian/Newtonian epistemology of individual psychology to a systemic epistemology of pattern. Perhaps the most significant (and underappreciated) aspect of this epistemological shift pertains to etiology: The family theories of schizophrenia espoused by Bateson et al. and by Wynne and Singer do not claim that parents or families cause schizophrenia. The persistent failure of researchers to appreciate this has led to many fruitless studies that have sought to discover a causal link between the thought disorder and communication deviance of parents and the schizophrenia of their offspring. This paper reviews from an epistemological viewpoint the empirical literature that has attempted to assess the validity of the family theories of schizophrenia. Particular attention is given to restating and extending the epistemology of pattern within which schizophrenia occurs. The conventional psychiatric approaches to schizophrenia are shown to play an active role within the schizophrenic pattern.     

Probabilistic National Stereotypes

A stereotype of a group can be expressed by the estimated percentage of members that possess certain personality attributes (Brigham, 1971). In a multi-group design, the properties of the percentage measure were examined, and three common assumptions about stereotypes were supported. First, there was high consensus among American and Italian raters regarding the attributes of Americans, Italians, English, and Germans. Second, the perceived typicality of a trait depended largely on contrasts with other traits attributed to the same target group. Contrasts between attributions of the same trait to different groups were largely irrelevant. Third, most stereotype judgments revealed consistency biases. Compared with a Bayesian model of probability estimation, raters exaggerated the similarities between trait attributions (the percentage measure), social categorizations (percentage of people that belong to a group given they possess the trait), and Likert-scaled typicality ratings. Raters underestimated the effects of the traits' global base rates on the typicality ratings.     

Stereotypes as Pseudocontingencies

We introduce a heuristic called pseudocontingencies (PCs) as an alternative account of various stereotyping phenomena. PCs give rise to the expectation that attributes are correlated based solely on asymmetries in attribute base rates. Attributes that are encountered frequently and attributes that are encountered rarely are perceived to be correlated with each other. Such differences in information densities are typical of many stereotyped targets, including the self vs. others, the in-group vs. out-groups and majority vs. minority groups. Evidence is reviewed for PCs underlying illusory correlations, confirmation biases, gender stereotypes, Simpson’s paradox, and in procedures used for implicit stereotype measurement. PCs are shown to predict specific patterns of self-enhancement and self-depreciation, the effects of intergroup contact on in-group biases and the readiness to infer stereotypes from aggregated “big-data”. Although PCs can lead to seriously flawed stereotypic expectations, they afford an efficient and possibly adaptive inference strategy.     

The Occupational Stereotypes and Expectations for Their Children Held by Mothers Representing Different Ethnic Communities in Miami1

The study focuses on the occupational expectations and aspirations that mothers, representing 5 different ethnic groups and 2 social classes, have for their children. An intergroup perspective was adopted by considering the occupational stereotypes that mothers have of the different ethnic groups, and the extent to which ethnic group membership influences hiring decisions. The results indicate that there exist very clear ethno-occupational stereotypes, and that these influence hiring decisions. However, despite wide variation in the occupational status in the stereotypes of different ethnic groups, mothers had universally high expectations for their children. The extent to which these represent optimism or false hope is addressed.     

The Influence of Family and Community Factors on Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity (EI) is influenced by many factors, but few studies have examined the relative contribution of parenting style and other factors to EI. We addressed this gap by examining the effects of family and community factors on the EI of ethnic minority students enrolled in graduate psychology programs in the United States. The results suggest that family, peers, and experiences of discrimination significantly influence EI. Familial cultural socialization was the strongest contributor to EI. La identidad étnica (EI, por sus siglas en inglés) recibe influencia de muchos factores, pero pocos estudios han examinado la contribución relativa del estilo parental y otros factores a la EI. Abordamos este vacío examinando los efectos de los factores de familia y comunidad en la EI de estudiantes de minorías étnicas matriculados en programas de psicología de posgrado en los Estados Unidos. Los resultados sugieren que la familia, los compañeros y las experiencias de discriminación influyen en la EI de forma significativa. La socialización cultural familiar fue el factor que ejerció la mayor influencia sobre la EI.     

Perpetuating Stereotypes: A Study of Gender,Family, and Religious Life in Jewish Children's Books

This paper examines award‐winning Jewish children's literature as a medium to explore how religiosity gets constructed differently for men and women. We analyze three decades of winners of the Sydney Taylor Jewish Book Award, a prestigious annual award given by the Association of Jewish Libraries to an outstanding Jewish children's book. We demonstrate how these award‐winning books produce and perpetuate gendered religious stereotypes that associate men with agency and women with communion. We also show how these books construct images of a “domestic Judaism” for women and a “public Judaism” for men and how women have been symbolically annihilated from the titles and central character roles in these books. Drawing on Cecilia Ridgeway's ( 2011 ) gender‐framing perspective, we argue that the gender stereotypes evident in these books matter to society because they produce and enforce gender inequalities in religiousness.     

The Influence of Family Dynamics on Ethnic Identity Among Adult Latinas

The literature on the development of ethnic identity within the young adult years and during childhood is plentiful. There is less research that examines how this development continues beyond young adult or college years. Research suggests that major life events experienced in adulthood could cause individuals to enter a period of identity reconstruction, yet little is known about this process. Because family and/or familism has been established as an important aspect of Latinos’ identities and lived experiences, this study seeks to examine the dimensions around family dynamics and their potential influences on ethnic identity development processes among adult Latinas. Findings indicate that Latinas often make sense of their ethnic identity when major life events associated with family dynamics occur; such as marriage, childbearing, and negotiating relationships with family members as culture is being transmitted across several generations. These findings have implications for understanding adult education students as well as considering the influence of education on the family dynamics of Latinas.     

交叉分类群体的理科性别刻板印象

为探讨以性别与专业构成的交叉分类群体的理科性别刻板印象,研究采用了内隐联想测验和自我报告两种方式,分别从内隐和外显两个加工层面对其予以考察.结果发现,内隐层面上四类交叉分类群体都存在理科性别刻板印象,但外显层面上只有理科男性、 文科男性和文科女性存在该刻板印象,而理科女性不存在.该结果表明理科性别刻板印象非常顽固,即使...     

Factors Determining National Stereotypes

Summary

In order to test various explanations of the fact that perceived competence appears to correlate positively with altruism, Ss were given false feedback as to their competence on a “visual creativity” test and then asked to help with a second task, writing creative color names. Three groups of Ss who were told they were competent were given reduced cost, increased happiness, and increased responsibility as reasons for helping; the other three groups were given no explanations, but were told that their competence was high, or low, or given no information. The three explanation groups helped more than the other three groups, and the reduced cost group helped more than the other five. The three dependent measures of helping (percentage of helpful Ss, duration of help, and magnitude of help) proved differentially sensitive to treatment and sex differences. Only the latter two measures showed greater helping in the reduced cost group; only the magnitude measure showed significantly greater helping for males than females.     

从刻板印象到类属性思维

本文介绍了类属性思维准确性的定义和研究历史,着重阐述了与类属性思维准确性有关的理论模型：Allpon的分类学说,McCauley的或然性模型以及EPA模型。不可否认类属性思维中有偏见成分的存在,但准确性也是其构成中不可忽视的一部分,因此,任何理由的厚此薄彼都是不应该的。     

Sex-Role Stereotypes in Medicine

I argue for compatibility between feminism and medicine by developing a model of the physician-other relationship which is essentially egalitarian. This entails rejection of (a) a paternalistic model which reinforces sex-role stereotypes, (b) a maternalistic model which exclusively emphasizes patient autonomy, and (c) a model which focuses on the physician's conscience. The model I propose (parentalism) captures the complexity and dynamism of the physician-other relationship, by stressing mutuality in respect for autonomy and regard for each other's interests.     

Stereotypes focus defensive projection

Defensive projection is the process of perceiving one's undesirable qualities in others. The present research shows how stereotypes guide and justify the projection of specific traits onto specific group members. In four studies, the authors demonstrated that people who experienced a threat to a specific dimension of their self-concept selectively activated this dimension in a stereotype and derogated stereotyped others on this dimension. They further showed that stereotyped individuals are more likely to serve as targets of projection than are nonstereotyped individuals. These results demonstrate the functional role of stereotypes in guiding and constraining motivated self-enhancement.     

Nicknames as Sex-Role Stereotypes

Nicknames are powerful indicators of attitudes towards gender categories and because of their transient and optional nature, it has been argued that they are more likely to show a closer relationship to ongoing trends in the culture and society than other more fixed parts of the language E. B. Phillips (1990) [“Nicknames and Sex Role Stereotypes,” Sex Roles, Vol. 23, pp. 281–289]. This study reports on a survey of nickname usage among a group of South African adolescents from mixed socioeconomic backgrounds (approximately 25% other than white) in an attempt to explicate gender-linked trends in frequency of occurrence, usage and attitudes to such special names. It reveals that conventions regarding nickname coinage and usage are intimately connected to the gender of bearers and users, and that more males have nicknames and coin them than females; it also shows significant sex-linked differences in the linguistic sources and users of nicknames, and reveals a greater tendency for female nicknames to function as indicators of affection rather than for humorous or critical effect. It could be argued that these trends could be linked to the nurturing and nurtured role of females in society, and to the differences in social power generally between males and females.     

Effects of Changes in GNP and Perceived Group Characteristics on National and Ethnic Stereotypes in Central and Eastern Europe1

This study examines changes in national and ethnic stereotypes between 1994 and 1995 among 625 adolescents from 6 central and eastern European countries. First, it was found that stereotypes of the national in‐group and ethnic minority groups were stable, while stereotypes of specific national out‐groups changed slightly in some of the countries. Second, the results indicate that foreign out‐group stereotypes, in terms of morality, became more negative as a function of the economic deterioration in the perceivers' country. Third, the results show that stereotypes of foreign national groups are affected by changes in perceived economic and relational features of the national states. The results are discussed in relation to self‐categorization theory, relative deprivation theory, social identity theory, and scapegoat theory.     

Studies of Stereotypes: I. The Directionality and Uniformity of Responses to Stereotypes

Abstract

Cattell, R. B. Personality and Motivation: Structure and Measurement. New York: World Book, 1957. Reviewed by J. A. Radcliffe.