Interpersonal loss and self-mutilation

Self-mutilation was hypothesized to increase in frequency during periods of interpersonal loss in a treatment program for seriously disturbed adolescents. The study examined changes in the frequency of acts of self-mutilation, aggression, and running away for 32 teenagers who experienced interpersonal loss when staff members left employment. Data were collected for a 4-year period. Statistical findings indicated that the frequency of self-mutilation increased significantly during the time period of anticipated loss, 2 weeks prior to staff terminations. There was no significant increase in the frequency of self-mutilation immediately following the staff terminations. Also, there was no significant change in the rates of aggression or running away either before or after the loss events. It was concluded that the time of anticipated loss was the period of highest risk for these adolescents in terms of self-mutilative behavior.     

Post-decision consolidation over time as a function of gain or loss of an alternative

Post-decision consolidation processes were studied in a two-stage lottery design. School children (1) rated the attractiveness of audiotape head sets, (2) decided for which of two head sets they would like to get a lottery ticket, (3) threw a dice to determine if they got a lottery ticket in the preferred lottery or not, and (4)drew a ticket in the final lottery. Before and after each of these stages ratings were obtained of the attractiveness of the alternatives on four attributes. The results were interpreted in terms of Differentiation and Consolidation Theory. Post-decision consolidation appeared immediately after the outcome of the dice throw. Subjects who won a lottery ticket consolidated their prior decision to a greater degree than those who lost. The effect was so strong for the former group that a pre-decision attractiveness disadvantage was restructured to a post-decision advantage. Folowing the decision, consolidation remained at approximately the level reached immediately after the dice throw for losers and winners, respectively, but with an increasing trend over time for winners. Even following a final loss of an audiotape headset the level of consolidation was maintained.     

Free birds aren't fat: Weight gain in captured wild pigeons maintained under laboratory conditions

Nine feral pigeons, 5 from an urban setting and 4 from a rural setting, were captured and maintained for 42 days under free-feeding conditions comparable to those arranged for laboratory subjects. On average, birds increased their body weights by 17% over this period. The range of increase across birds was 9 to 30%. These findings suggest that the food deprivation arranged for laboratory pigeons, which is characteristically 80% of free-feeding weights, may in some sense be less severe than it first appears.     

Dissociable effects of basolateral amygdala lesions on decision making biases in rats when loss or gain is emphasized

Individuals switch from risk seeking to risk aversion when mathematically identical options are described in terms of loss versus gains, as exemplified in the reflection and framing effects. Determining the neurobiology underlying such cognitive biases could inform our understanding of decision making in health and disease. Although reports vary, data using human subjects have implicated the amygdala in such biases. Animal models enable more detailed investigation of neurobiological mechanisms. We therefore tested whether basolateral amygdala (BLA) lesions would affect risk preference for gains or losses in rats. Choices in both paradigms were always between options of equal expected value—a guaranteed outcome, or the 50:50 chance of double or nothing. In the loss-chasing task, most rats exhibited strong risk seeking preferences, gambling at the risk of incurring double the penalty, regardless of the size of the guaranteed loss. In the betting task, the majority of animals were equivocal in their choice, irrespective of bet size; however, a wager-sensitive subgroup progressively shifted away from the uncertain option as the bet size increased, which is reminiscent of risk aversion. BLA lesions increased preference for the smaller guaranteed loss in the loss-chasing task, without affecting choice on the betting task, which is indicative of reduced risk seeking for losses, but intact risk aversion for gains. These data support the hypothesis that the amygdala plays a more prominent role in choice biases related to losses. Given the importance of the amygdala in representing negative affect, the aversive emotional reaction to loss, rather than aberrant estimations of probability or loss magnitude, may underlie risk seeking for losses.     

Programming strategies for rapid aiming movements under simple and choice reaction time conditions

Increases in reaction time (RT) as a function of response complexity have been shown to differ between simple and choice RT tasks. Of interest in the present study was whether the influence of response complexity on RT depends on the extent to which movements are programmed in advance of movement initiation versus during execution (i.e., online). The task consisted of manual aiming movements to one or two targets (one- vs. two-element responses) under simple and choice RT conditions. The probe RT technique was employed to assess attention demands during RT and movement execution. Simple RT was greater for the two- than for the single-target responses but choice RT was not influenced by the number of elements. In both RT tasks, reaction times to the probe increased as a function of number of elements when the probe occurred during movement execution. The presence of the probe also caused an increase in aiming errors in the simple but not choice RT task. These findings indicated that online programming was occurring in both RT tasks. In the simple RT task, increased executive control mediated the integration between response elements through the utilization of visual feedback to facilitate the implementation of the second element.     

Programming strategies for rapid aiming movements under simple and choice reaction time conditions

Increases in reaction time (RT) as a function of response complexity have been shown to differ between simple and choice RT tasks. Of interest in the present study was whether the influence of response complexity on RT depends on the extent to which movements are programmed in advance of movement initiation versus during execution (i.e., online). The task consisted of manual aiming movements to one or two targets (one- vs. two-element responses) under simple and choice RT conditions. The probe RT technique was employed to assess attention demands during RT and movement execution. Simple RT was greater for the two- than for the single-target responses but choice RT was not influenced by the number of elements. In both RT tasks, reaction times to the probe increased as a function of number of elements when the probe occurred during movement execution. The presence of the probe also caused an increase in aiming errors in the simple but not choice RT task. These findings indicated that online programming was occurring in both RT tasks. In the simple RT task, increased executive control mediated the integration between response elements through the utilization of visual feedback to facilitate the implementation of the second element.     

No pain, no gain: the conditions under which upward comparisons lead to better performance

In 3 studies, the authors explored the relation between threatening upward social comparisons and performance. In an initial study, participants were exposed to comparison targets who either threatened or boosted self-evaluations and then completed a performance task. Participants exposed to the threatening target performed better than those in a control group, whereas those exposed to the nonthreatening target performed worse. In Study 2, self-affirmation prior to comparison with threatening targets eliminated performance improvements. In Study 3, performance improvements were found only when the performance domain was different from the domain of success of the comparison target. These boundary conditions suggest that increases in performance following social comparison arise from individuals' motivations to maintain and repair self-evaluations. Implications for the study of the behavioral consequences of social comparison are discussed.     

Behavioral Indicators of Interpersonal Attraction1

The laboratory study of attraction is based almost exclusively on verbal measures of the dependent variable. Various findings suggest that the physical distance separating two individuals indicates the degree of attraction between them. In two experiments, attitude similarity between a subject and two stooges was manipulated. Females were more attracted to and sat more closely beside a similar than a dissimilar stranger (p < .01); males were more attracted to and sat directly across from a similar rather than a dissimilar stranger (p < .02).     

Reactions to Interpersonal Evaluative Feedback1

Self-enhancement approaches to self-concept provide a perspective for identifying motivational factors likely to be affected by interpersonal evaluative feedback. The main hypothesies were that in contrast to positive feedback, negative feedback would lead to higher self-esteem, lower perceptions of task importance, and lower perceptions of control over an evaluator's reactions. Students received a lesson on solving analogies from a teacher (confederate), and then took a test on analogies. After reviewing the student's test, the teacher conveyed either positive feedback, negative feedback, or no feedback. Consistent with a self-enhancement perspective, recipients of negative feedback increased their global self-esteem, placed less importance on succeeding at the task, and felt less control over the teachers' reactions. Implications for understanding the role of interpersonal evaluative feedback in motivation and self-esteem, and self-enhancing responses to threats more generally are discussed.     

The shape of a life and the value of loss and gain

We ordinarily think that, keeping all else equal, a life that improves is better than one that declines. However, it has proven challenging to account for such value judgments: some, such as Fred Feldman and Daniel Kahneman, have simply denied that these judgments are rational, while others, such as Douglas Portmore, Michael Slote, and David Velleman, have proposed justifications for the judgments that appear to be incomplete or otherwise problematic. This article identifies problems with existing accounts and suggests a novel alternative theory: what best accounts for our preference for an uphill over a downhill life (and many other episodes) is that losses of momentary value are themselves bad and gains in momentary value are themselves good.     

环境损益的社会折扣:利他人格的影响

他人与自我之间的社会距离越远,则他人的获益或损失带给自我的效用就越小,此现象被称为社会折扣。虽然有一些研究探讨了金钱结果的社会折扣现象,但作为公共品的环境结果的社会折扣规律及其影响因素并未得到应有的研究。本研究以优劣空气天数为例,采用选择滴定程序,在损益两种情境下探索环境结果的社会折扣现象,并考察利他人格对社会折扣的影响。结果发现:(1)相比双曲模型,指数模型在损益两种情境下皆能更佳地拟合环境结果的社会折扣函数;(2)损益情境与社会距离的交互作用影响环境结果的社会折扣程度,损失情境下的社会折扣程度随社会距离的增加而变大的幅度大于收益情境;(3)利他人格在社会距离对社会折扣的影响中起调节作用。相比高利他人格者,低利他人格者的社会折扣受社会距离的影响较大。本研究对理解环境结果社会折扣和环保决策行为具有重要意义。     

Interpersonal loss in the context of family caregiving: Implications of communal relationships theory

Abstract

Much is known about the emotional costs of providing care to an ill or disabled family member. However, surprisingly little attention has been devoted to investigating how caregiver distress is related to interpersonal loss (i.e., reactions to changes in the typical day-to-day support behaviors that formerly characterized the caregiver–care recipient relationship). Drawing on the theory of communal relationships (e.g., Clark & Mills, 1979, 1993), this study proposes that the magnitude of interpersonal loss that caregivers experience, as well as its contributions to depressed affect, both directly and indirectly (through impact of interpersonal loss on perceived caregiving burden) are likely to depend on the type of relationship that existed between caregiver and care recipient prior to the onset of illness or disability. In this context, several hypotheses and directions for further research are proposed. It is hoped that future researchers will incorporate loss measures into their research and consider how aspects of preexisting relationships influence associations among interpersonal loss and variables (e.g., burden, social support) known to predict caregiver well-being.     

Interpersonal Consequences of Expressing Personal or Team Affect for Team Success or Failure Among Turkish Students

Two experiments were conducted among Turkish students to explore the effects of team or personally oriented expressions of pride or shame for joint success or failure on evaluations of the outcome, team, and partner; causal attributions were also explored. In the second experiment, complying with a partner's choice of task and influencing the preference for future partners under high or low pressure were examined. Results indicated that for success outcomes, team expressions (relative to personal ones) caused more favorable evaluations of the outcome, team harmony, and the partner, and more causal attributions to the team as a unit. Nonsignificant but consistent opposite tendencies were observed for failure outcomes. The results of the second experiment further indicated that low pressure was more effective than high in increasing preference for personally oriented partners and was marginally effective in increasing agreement for future tasks under the personal expression condition.     

Reaction time correlations with intelligence test scores obtained under either timed or untimed conditions

One hundred and thirteen high school students were randomly assigned to one of two groups that were administered an intelligence test (the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery) under either timed or untimed conditions. Subsequently, all subjects were given a battery of 8 reaction time tests. Multiple regression analyses showed that combinations of RTs were approximately equally good predictors of IQ scores in both groups. Zero-order correlations between each RT test and IQ scores were also approximately equal for timed and untimed Verbal and Full-Scale scores but correlations with Performance scores were higher in the timed condition. The extent to which the different RT tests correlated with timed scores was quite highly related to the tests' loadings on a general speed factor but these loadings were not related to the tests' correlations with untimed scores. Rather, the relative complexity of the RT tests had a stronger influence on their correlations with IQ scores in the untimed condition. It is concluded that timed and untimed intelligence tests impose different information-processing demands on subjects but that the speed with which subjects can cope with these demands is equally important in both conditions.     

Interpersonal underpinnings of request strategies: general principles and differences due to culture and gender.

Several hypotheses derived from P. Brown and Levinson's (1987) politeness theory were tested with Ss from the United States and Korea. Ss imagined themselves in situations in which they were to make a request. They then indicated exactly what they would say in each situation and what their perceptions of the request size, the hearer's power, and the closeness of their relationship with the hearer were. Consistent with P. Brown and Levinson's theory, power, distance, and size contributed significantly to politeness. Significant predictor variable interactions suggested that an additive model is not appropriate. Finally, there was evidence of cultural and gender differences in the weighting of these predictor variables. These differences can partially account for cultural and gender differences in language use.     

Resource loss,resource gain,and emotional outcomes among inner city women

The authors examined a dynamic conceptualization of stress by investigating how economic stress, measured in terms of material loss, alters women's personal and social resources and how these changed resources impact anger and depressive mood. Resource change in women's mastery and social support over 9 months was significantly associated with changes in depressive mood and anger among 714 inner city women. Greater loss of mastery and social support was associated with increased depressive mood and anger. Loss of mastery and social support also mediated the impact of material loss on depressive mood and anger. Resource loss and worsening economic circumstances had more negative impact than resource gain and improving economic circumstances had positive impact, suggesting the greater saliency of loss than gain.