Increased theft as a side effect of sales promotion activities: An exploratory study

A combination of commonly used promotional activities, i.e., advertising, price reductions and increased exposure, was associated with increased thefts of six candy products. Thefts increased for each of the six products during the period the combination of promotional activities was used. Large increases in sales were observed for only two of the products. Sales of the other four products increased marginally or decreased in conjunction with promotional activities. When compared to normal sales conditions, the period of promotional activities produced less net profit per week for five of the six products. The results are of interest to retailers since they indicate that promotional activities for some products may produce a negative side effect, namely, increased theft. Further, promotional activities may not always produce increased sales.     

Broadening the application of mixed methods in sales research

Mixed method research designs can be extremely useful in extending knowledge in the sales domain. A bevy of mixed method designs are at the disposal of sales researchers seeking to reap the benefits of this combination of research approaches. However, application of mixed methods in sales research has been rather limited, focusing primarily on exploratory sequential designs. The purpose of this article is to provide an exposition of mixed method research in the sales domain and offer avenues of extension that employ underutilized mixed methodological approaches. Accordingly, a definition of mixed methods along with its benefits and drawbacks is espoused followed by guidance in conducting mixed method research. A review of sales-related mixed method studies is then provided and articles containing both quantitative and qualitative methods are analyzed to glean insight on the state of mixed methods research in sales. Future avenues for mixed method research are then provided focusing on best practices and techniques that have yet to be embraced by sales researchers. This article aims to be a resource for sales scholars in expanding the mixed method research paradigm.     

Meta-analyses in sales research

Meta-analytic inquiries enable researchers to synthesize empirical findings obtained over the evolution of a topic area and identify boundary conditions affecting the associations of key variables. Sales researchers can employ meta-analytic techniques to amalgamate empirical work conducted in a given topic area, and several sales researchers have effectively used meta-analyses to advance our understanding of the field. This article provides an exposition of this research design by analyzing its application in sales research. The authors review the meta-analytic studies in sales research and advance key considerations in topical foci, article selection, data coding and evaluation, and analytic approaches. An empirical example is provided to illustrate the power of meta-analysis in substantiating or refuting findings that diverge from accumulated insight in sales research. Results provide support for a positive effort–job satisfaction association in contrast to findings evidencing a negative association between these variables. A second empirical example is used to evaluate the nomological and discriminant validity of two related constructs: job involvement and organizational commitment. Results suggest that these two constructs may be empirically redundant. The authors also provide guidance for the future in regard to new substantive research areas, construct assessment, and additional types of meta-analytic approaches.     

A review of climate and culture research in selling and sales management

Despite the extensive literature on organizational climate and culture and their impact on an organization's sales activities, the diversity of theoretical perspectives makes it difficult for sales professionals and scholars to understand the effect of specific climate- and culture-related factors on the performance of salespeople and sales units in an organization. The objective of this article is to clarify the conceptual underpinnings of organizational climate and culture research within the sales context through an extensive review of extant literature. In doing so, we offer a critical review of research on organizational climate and culture, a conceptual frame for viewing the literature across different levels of analysis, and specific questions to guide future research. We also make a case for more research on industry-level climate and culture in the sales context.     

Predicting sales performance

This study investigated the relative effectiveness of several types of predictors of sales performance in a human resource consulting firm. These predictors included scores on an assessment center, a structured interview, a test of technical knowledge, and a simulated sales presentation. The criterion measure used was supervisory ratings of overall sales performance, or The extent to which this person accomplishes sales quotas. In addition, the skill to skill validity of the counselor selling dimension, which included relating, discovering, supporting, advocating, and collaborating, was assessed. Results indicated that both the structured interview and the assessment center were effective in predicting sales performance, (R=.63, F=7.90, p=.002). Also, this study indicates that performance in each of the skill areas of an assessment center or of an interview is a valid predictor of on the job performance in each of the same skill areas.     

Macro sales force research

The call for more macro sales force research where the sales force as a whole is the unit of analysis, which was raised in “The Strategic Role of the Sales Force,” is revisited in this article. Technology, consolidation, government policies, the evolution of organizational strategy are dramatically changing the role of the sales force and the daily lives of salespeople. Yet, it is estimated that no more than 5%, and probably less, of sales and sales management research examines these developments. To shine a light on this, a case study of a health-care company that has changed its strategic focus from a product to a solutions provider is presented. Changes in the role of the sales force are examined within the five sales force capabilities identified in the “The Strategic Role” article. Research questions are raised about sales force capabilities.     

A work commitment typology of sales representatives in the college textbook industry

The paper presents the results of an empirical study designed to develop a work commitment typology of sales representatives based on the combination of scores for job involvement and organizational commitment. Four types are identified and profiled: the totally involved, the organizational prone, the job prone, and the unattached. A multiple discriminant analysis suggests the sales representative's view of work-related characteristics to be more useful than personal characteristics in predicting work commitment type. Strategies for influencing the predominant types are provided.     

Hybrid sales structures in the age of e-commerce

Sales organizations continue to exhibit meaningful changes in their structures during the e-commerce era. This article examines the impact of Internet technology on the evolution of sales organizations and identifies key components underpinning a successful hybrid sales structure. A comprehensive review of sales organization studies leads to the derivation of a hybrid sales structure model, as well as a series of key recommendations pertaining to the organization and sales performance. These findings establish a platform for further research into the hybrid sales structure. The transition from a reliance on traditional, outside sales forces to a concomitant use of inside sales personnel produces hybrid sales structures that can accommodate online buyer–seller interactions and also leverage technological advances in sales automation and business intelligence to boost sales performance.     

Predicting sales skills

The purpose of this study was to validate a selection process designed to predict sales skills for a telephone sales job. First, a job analysis was performed (n=213) to identify the major functions and behavioral requirements of the job. Next, the test, a situational judgment inventory, was developed, and a concurrent criterion related validation study was completed (n=236). The criterion measures were supervisory ratings of performance. Validity coefficients ranged from r=.16 (p<.01) to r=.24 (p<.001). In conclusion, the situational judgment inventory was found an effective vehicle for measuring telephone sales skills.Sincere thanks to Roz Lobus for her assistance in the earlier phases of this study.     

Trends in optimization models of sales force management

In the last half-century, significant advances have been made in directing sales force behavior with the use of optimization and decision models. The present paper both presents the current state-of-the art in sales force decision modeling, and also discusses key issues and trends in contemporary modeling of relevance to sales force researchers. The paper begins by exploring critical concepts regarding the estimation of the sales response function, and then discusses critical problems of endogeneity, heterogeneity, and temporal variation that are faced by modelers in this task. Modern approaches to dealing with these issues are presented. We then discuss areas of importance concerning finding model solutions, including closed form versus simulation, and optimization versus heuristic solutions. The paper next moves to areas of practical importance where models can help, including call planning, sales force size, territory allocation, and compensation design. Finally, we discuss trends that will likely impact on sales force modeling in coming years, including the use of big data and data mining, the possible breakdown of rationality, the rise of the Internet and social media, and the potential of agent-based modeling.     

An assessment of needed sales management skills

The skills required of sales managers are vitally important to the success of the firm's selling effort; however, there has not been a recent review that identifies these needed skills. Based on a survey of sales executives from 145 companies, this research develops a taxonomy of key sales management skills. The perceived importance of these skills is reported based on the level of management, gender and the performance level of the firm. In addition to identifying the relative importance of the various sales management skills, they were found to group into three conceptual dimensions relating to interpersonal, technical and strategic skills. The results also indicate that significant differences in the perceived level of skill importance exist based on level of management, years managing salespeople, gender and on three dimensions of the respondent's firm performance.     

Setting the sales budget: An exploratory study

This article explores how the sales budget is set in a business organization. Findings from a longitudinal participant observation study revealed that the sales budget is considered of great importance to the organization as sales estimates serve as premises for planning of production and supply and new product developments. It was observed that the sales budget was based on a narrow, inner-directed perspective, almost looking away from important environmental driving forces such as competitors and customers. The findings also showed that individuals involved in the sales budgeting process behaved opportunistically, influencing the budgetary process and outcomes. Theoretical and normative implications are highlighted.     

Qualitative sales research: an exposition of grounded theory

The dominant research paradigm in sales research involves testing theory through empirical research. Nascent or underdeveloped research areas, however, may lack or have inadequate existing theories to explain sales-related phenomena. In these cases, sales researchers require a theory-generating methodological approach. Qualitative research designs are useful in this pursuit. The purpose of this article is to provide an exposition of one such qualitative research design – grounded theory. To this end, the foundational processes of grounded theory methodology are discussed. The results of a review of grounded theory examinations conducted in sales research are also provided, and current practices utilized by sales grounded theorists are discussed. Based on this review, future directions in substantive areas and methodological practices are provided. This article aims to serve as a resource for sales scholars wishing to know what grounded theory examinations have been conducted, how to implement grounded theory research and what avenues are available for future grounded theory sales research.     

Salesperson knowledge distinctions and sales performance

Although it is conceptually and practically posited that salesperson knowledge has a direct relationship to performance, empirical research concerning this topic has been limited. In a free elicitation study of 150 multi-line insurance agents, the authors demonstrate that higher performing sales personnel have more elaborate, contingent and context-specific procedural knowledge than that of less effective agents. Moreover, higher performing sales personnel's contingent knowledge is shown to be more relevant to the sales call and more adaptive or responsive to the specific contingency than lower performers. In addition, higher performers have more intermediary and indirect goals prior to initially contacting a prospect. These results fuel a call for further research concerning the procedural knowledge roots underlying sales performance, as well as the practical exigencies involved in developing, managing and retaining the knowledge resource of the sales force as a firm-level asset.     

Mixed interpretations of sales proposal signals

Long-term relationships with customers are critical determinants of a sales organization’s success. However, research tends to assess relational approaches from the salesperson or sales organization’s perspective and often neglects to capture customers’ perspectives which lead to the evaluative success or failure of buyer–seller relationships. This study assesses the seller’s bid-related signals from the buyer’s perspective following their selection or rejection of a business-to-business sales proposal. The authors adopt a theories-in-use approach, utilizing 54 depth-interviews with decision-makers from 33 buyer organizations. Within this data set, findings reveal three bid signals that are represented across both selection and rejection outcomes (i.e. mixed interpretations by buyers). These signals are the seller’s usage of price concessions, sales proposal specificity, and comparative customer examples. To better understand the mechanisms which influence buyers’ mixed interpretations of these signals, the authors utilize the newly-advanced qualitative pivoting technique to identify contextual variables across cases that influence the buyer’s positive or negative signal interpretation.     

Predicting successful territory sales performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the validity of the London HouseSales Professional Assessment Inventory (SPAI) for identifying successful territory managers at a national food distribution company. Forty-seven territory managers with valid SPAI results and usable performance information comprised the sample. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine the relationships between results on the SPAI and year-to-date sales figures for a 10 month period. Territory managers recommended by the SPAI had $350,000 more in average year-to-date sales revenues than those not recommended. Finally, those scoring in the top 10% on the SPAI haddouble the amount in sales revenues of those not recommended. The results indicate that the SPAI is a valid instrument for use in predicting the successful performance of territory managers at a national food distribution company.     

Improving online panel data usage in sales research

The exponential expansion of the Internet has fundamentally altered the nature of personal selling and sales management. The Internet has also created significant change for sales researchers and proffered a bevy of new means of conducting research. Online panel data collection is one such means that has recently proliferated. Online panel data collection imbues a host of advantages sales researchers may reap. However, there are a proportionate number of disadvantages and concerns with collecting and using this type of data. This article delineates said benefits and drawbacks and also provides a review of recent sales-related examples employing this method of data collection. Furthermore, key considerations in utilizing online panel data are advanced. Importantly, several ways to maximize the benefits and minimize the drawbacks inherent to online panel data are provided. This article aims to provide a resource for sales scholars in optimizing their usage of online panel data.     

虚拟销售代理的拟人效应

网络购物中的虚拟销售代理(Virtual Sales Agent)是指通过口头或非口头形式与消费者互动和交流的具有拟人化特征的动态人物形象, 它可以为消费者提供商品和服务的信息以及必要的帮助。近年来, 大量研究证实了虚拟销售代理的拟人效应, 即当在网络购物环境中加入拟人化的销售代理时, 就会对购物者的在线购物过程感知体验和购物意向产生积极影响。相关理论从不同视角解释了虚拟销售代理拟人效应发生的原因。综述以往的实证研究发现, 虚拟销售代理拟人效应的发生受到虚拟销售代理特征、消费者因素以及商品因素等方面的影响; 社会临场感、个性化服务知觉、社会支持感、信任和风险感知是拟人效应发生的内在心理机制。未来研究应关注虚拟销售代理拟人效应的神经生理基础, 丰富拟人效应发生的影响因素, 加强对个性化定制虚拟销售代理的研究, 探讨虚拟销售代理的消极影响, 以及不利于虚拟销售代理使用的障碍性因素。