自闭症碎镜理论之迷思:缘起、问题与前景

自闭症患者在社会沟通和交往障碍上主要涉及社会情感互动缺陷、非语言行为交流缺陷、发展维持和理解人际关系的缺陷。该群体在社会认知过程中潜在自动的直觉成分受损被视为其独特的临床症状。鉴于镜像神经元系统在社会认知的直觉成分上扮演的重要角色,该系统的功能障碍假说(或称"碎镜"理论)被提出并用以解释自闭症的成因及其异常表现。然而,在经历了10年的发展与证据检验后,该理论潜在的问题逐渐暴露。当前的研究显示,迄今为止人类镜像神经元系统的研究存在内在缺陷,镜像神经元系统至多是社会认知的附带原因,该系统功能障碍也并非自闭症患者社会认知障碍的必要条件。碎镜理论面临来自临床行为研究与认知神经科学实验证据的广泛质疑。未来,伴随自闭症研究对象的变化,镜像神经元的社会响应学说的提出,双个体范式、第二人称神经科学范式与计算精神病学的兴起,镜像神经元与自闭症的真正关系将有望得以阐明。     

A review of the observational data-collection and reliability procedures reported in The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

The research published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968 to 1975) was surveyed for three basic elements: data-collection methods, reliability procedures, and reliability scores. Three-quarters of the studies reported observational data. Most of these studies' observational methods were variations of event recording, trial scoring, interval recording, or time-sample recording. Almost all studies reported assessment of observer reliability, usually total or point-by-point percentage agreement scores. About half the agreement scores were consistently above 90%. Less than one-quarter of the studies reported that reliability was assessed at least once per condition.     

有关镜像神经元起源问题上的争论

文章阐述了镜像神经元起源问题上的争论及其最新进展。镜像神经元的独特之处在于,它在动作知觉和动作执行两个阶段皆被激活。这一知觉和操作的匹配机制究竟是怎样形成的?遗传论观点认为镜像神经元的匹配机制是有机体适应环境的结果,由于镜像神经元具有理解他人动作意图的特殊功能,因而被自然选择,通过遗传而得到传递。联结论则主张这种匹配机制只不过是大脑皮层动作神经元对感觉刺激形成的一种条件反射,是个体经验的结果。镜像神经元的"进化-发展观"则采纳渐成论的观点,认为镜像神经元的起源和进化不可能是联结学习单独造就的,而是进化的、生物的、发展性的、社会认知方面的和基于经验的各种因素的联合作用。     

Virtual reality treatment versus exposure in vivo: a comparative evaluation in acrophobia

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of low-budget virtual reality (VR) exposure versus exposure in vivo in a between-group design in 33 patients suffering from acrophobia. The virtual environments used in treatment were exactly copied from the real environments used in the exposure in vivo program. VR exposure was found to be as effective as exposure in vivo on anxiety and avoidance as measured with the Acrophobia Questionnaire (AQ), the Attitude Towards Heights Questionnaire (ATHQ) and the Behavioral Avoidance Test (BAT). Results were maintained up to six months follow-up. The present study shows that VR exposure can be effective with relatively cheap hardware and software on stand-alone computers currently on the market. Further studies into the effectiveness of VR exposure are recommended in other clinical groups as agoraphobics and social phobics and studies in which VR exposure is compared with more emerging virtual worlds as presented in CAVE-type systems.     

Presence and absence through the mirror of transference: a model of the transcendent function

The workings of the transcendent function are explored through the development of a model of psychical process which is founded on the symbolism of the mirror. The model consists in a three-dimensional psychical manifold comprising apperceptive, reflective, and subjective axes. A fourth, temporal axis is implicit in the process character of the model. A fifth, affective axis is not discussed. The model is used to enhance understanding of both failed and successful transcendent functioning. Parallels with modes of initiation are developed. The transference role of the therapist is explored.     

Observation procedure, observer gender, and behavior valence as determinants of sampling error in a behavior assessment analogue

Several factors thought to influence the representativeness of behavioral assessment data were examined in an analogue study using a multifactorial design. Systematic and unsystematic methods of observing group behavior were investigated using 18 male and 18 female observers. Additionally, valence properties of the observed behaviors were inspected. Observers' assessments of a videotape were compared to a criterion code that defined the population of behaviors. Results indicated that systematic observation procedures were more accurate than unsystematic procedures, though this factor interacted with gender of observer and valence of behavior. Additionally, males tended to sample more representatively than females. A third finding indicated that the negatively valenced behavior was overestimated, whereas the neutral and positively valenced behaviors were accurately assessed.     

Understanding intentions from actions: Direct perception,inference, and the roles of mirror and mentalizing systems

This review asks whether observers can obtain information about others’ intentions from observation of their actions; and if so, whether this process is performed using direct perceptual or inferential processes (prominent examples of each being the intention understanding theory of mirror neuron function, and mentalizing accounts of intention understanding, respectively). I propose four conditions that should be fulfilled in order to support a direct perception account, and suggest that only two of these conditions are supported by the existing data. I then propose and review three further sources of evidence which have the potential to inform this debate, concluding that the data do not support the direct perception account. In particular, mirror neurons may be involved in lower-level processes of action perception, but there is no evidence to support their involvement in the type of higher-level intention understanding that is proposed by the direct perception account.     

Speech-associated gestures, Broca’s area, and the human mirror system

Speech-associated gestures are hand and arm movements that not only convey semantic information to listeners but are themselves actions. Broca’s area has been assumed to play an important role both in semantic retrieval or selection (as part of a language comprehension system) and in action recognition (as part of a “mirror” or “observation–execution matching” system). We asked whether the role that Broca’s area plays in processing speech-associated gestures is consistent with the semantic retrieval/selection account (predicting relatively weak interactions between Broca’s area and other cortical areas because the meaningful information that speech-associated gestures convey reduces semantic ambiguity and thus reduces the need for semantic retrieval/selection) or the action recognition account (predicting strong interactions between Broca’s area and other cortical areas because speech-associated gestures are goal-direct actions that are “mirrored”). We compared the functional connectivity of Broca’s area with other cortical areas when participants listened to stories while watching meaningful speech-associated gestures, speech-irrelevant self-grooming hand movements, or no hand movements. A network analysis of neuroimaging data showed that interactions involving Broca’s area and other cortical areas were weakest when spoken language was accompanied by meaningful speech-associated gestures, and strongest when spoken language was accompanied by self-grooming hand movements or by no hand movements at all. Results are discussed with respect to the role that the human mirror system plays in processing speech-associated movements.     

生命意义问卷(修订版)在初中生群体中的信效度:留守与非留守学生的比较分析

检验生命意义问卷(修订版)在初中生群体中的信效度,并比较了留守与非留守学生在测量学指标上的差异。采用生命意义问卷(修订版)、超越意义量表、情感调节量表、Rosenberg自尊量表和幸福感指数量表对1300名初中生进行调查,其中有636名留守初中生。探索性因素分析、平行分析和最小平均偏相关分析均表明该量表为双因子结构,验证性因素分析与各类群体拟合良好;与上述效标变量均有显著的正相关;在性别和是否留守学生变量上,个别条目表现出一致性或非一致性条目功能差异;总量表、追寻和拥有意义分量表的δ系数都大于0.9。生命意义问卷(修订版)具有在初中生和留守初中生中均有良好的信效度;可以忽略在性别和是否留守学生变量的条目功能差异;问卷辨识度较高。     

Reactivity and unreliability of husbands as participant observers

This study examined the reliability and reactivity of participant observation. Twelve couples engaged in two discussions in a laboratory, one on a conflict topic and one on a consensus topic. For the eight couples in the experimental sequences, a baseline discussion was followed by participant observation in which the husband recorded his wife's use of I while continuing to converse. The four couples in the control sequences conversed without participant observation. Compared to observations made by a trained observer, the husbands were unreliable observers, underestimating their wives' use of I. Participant observation was reactive (P<.01), with more wives decreasing their use of I in the experimental sequences than in the control sequences (p<.094). The topic of discussion did not differentially influence reliability or reactivity.This research was conducted as the first author's independent doctoral research project. We extend gratitude to the Research Council of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro for Grant 0-2-110-218-XXXXX-7548; the Statistical Consulting Center of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro; two anonymous reviewers; and our research assistants, Suzanne Brannon, Ben Hardie, Kathy Lindamood, Amy Mitchem, Regina Pierce, and Elga Wulfert. Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Washington, D.C., December 1983.     

Behavioral measures of assertiveness: A comparison of audio and audiovisual coding of structured interactions

This study assessed the relative utility of audio and audiovisually recorded versions of structured interactions from the Behavioral Assertiveness Test-Revised. The subjects were 28 adult male psychiatric patients who participated in an assertion training program. The systems were evaluated on a number of dimensions including reliability, comparability, sensitivity to change, concurrent and discriminant validity, and cost. The two systems were found to be approximately equally reliable, to produce comparable results on measures that were assessed by both systems, and to be approximately equally sensitive to change. The main advantage of the audiovisual system was the inclusion of a measure of eye contact — which proved to be one of the most valid component behaviors assessed. Potential users need to weigh the additional information obtained from this measure against the substantially greater cost of the audiovisual system. It was concluded that both systems could be simplified, and limitations of the study were noted.     

Evaluation of family intervention through unobtrusive audio recordings: experiences in "bugging" children

Five children referred to a child-family intervention program wore a radio transmitter in the home during pre-intervention and termination assessments. The transmitter broadcast to a receiver-recording apparatus in the home (either activated by an interval timer at predetermined "random" times or by parents at predetermined "picked" times). "Picked" times were parent-selected situations during which problems typically occurred (e.g., bedtime). Parents activated the recorder regularly whether or not problems occurred. Child-deviant, parent-negative, and parent-commanding behaviors were significantly higher at the picked times during pretest than at random times. At posttest, behaviors in all three classes were substantially reduced at picked times, but not at random times. For individual subject data, reductions occurred in at least two of the three dependent variables for three of the five cases during random time assessments. In general, the behavioral outcome data corresponded to parent-attitude reports and parent-collected observation data.     

Competence,guilt, and victimization: Sex differences in attribution of causality in television dramas

Sex differences in attribution of causality are investigated in three types of television programs: prime-time family, violent, and daytime serial shows. Both frequency and type of causal statements were studied, using DeCharm's conceptualization of personal causation as origin-like (internal to the self) or pawn-like (external to the self). There were striking sex differences in violent programs, with males modeling more origin behavior and females modeling more pawn behavior. In soap operas there were no sex differences, but both origin and pawn ideas were expressed in terms of personal responsibility, with fewer references to more competent origin behaviors such as goal setting, planned decision making, or self-confidence. These findings have implications for differential socialization of competent coping skills for males and females.The authors would like to express appreciation to Katie Henry and Jennifer Mardoyan, who assisted with this research.     

模仿心理机制研究的历史、现状与展望

近年来模仿机制研究在深化皮亚杰理论的基础上,深入探讨了模仿与心理理解之间的发生、发展关系及其相互作用机制,并结合脑神经科学研究的最新进展,探讨模仿背后的脑神经机制。在梳理当前心理学、脑神经科学中TT理论、ST理论以及镜像神经理论研究的基础上,给出了进一步深化研究的展望。     

Visual,Tactile, and Auditory “Not Just Right” Experiences: Associations With Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms and Perfectionism

“Not just right” experiences (NJREs), or uncomfortable sensations associated with the immediate environment not feeling “right,” are thought to contribute to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptomatology. The literature suggests that NJREs are experienced across sensory modalities; however, existing in vivo measures have been restricted to visual inductions (e.g., viewing and/or rearranging a cluttered table). The present study used a large undergraduate sample (N = 284) to examine 4 in vivo tasks designed to elicit and assess NJREs across separate sensory modalities (i.e., visual, tactile, and auditory). Task ratings (discomfort evoked, and urge to counteract task-specific stimuli) were uniquely associated with self-report measures of NJREs, OC symptoms (ordering/arranging, checking, and washing), and certain maladaptive domains of perfectionism (doubts about actions, and organization). Findings have implications for experimental research and clinical work targeting NJREs specific to particular senses.     

Frequency,complexity, and clarity as covariates of observer reliability

Factors affecting interobserver agreement (reliability) with a comprehensive coding system in the naturalistic observation of children were examined. Data from 117 pairs of observations on 35 children and their families were examined with respect to reliability and three possible covariates: response frequency, observation complexity, and code definition clarity. Analysis of results strongly supported response frequency as a positive covariate of interobserver agreement. Complexity was found to negatively covary with interobserver agreement. The relationship between code clarity and reliability was in the predicted direction but failed to obtain statistical significance. Implications for observer training and data collection in observational studies are discussed.An earlier version of this article was prepared for presentation at The Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Atlanta, Georgia, December 1977.     

Measures of interobserver agreement: Calculation formulas and distribution effects

Seventeen measures of association for observer reliability (interobserver agreement) are reviewed and computational formulas are given in a common notational system. An empirical comparison of 10 of these measures is made over a range of potential reliability check results. The effects on percentage and correlational measures of occurrence frequency, error frequency, and error distribution are examined. The question of which is the best measure of interobserver agreement is discussed in terms of critical issues to be considered     

Studies in observational paired-associate learning: Informational,social, and individual difference variables

Four experiments examined the relative importance of informational (proportion of correct responses and kinds of errors emitted by a model), social (model competency, sex of model, video vs. audio taped model), and individual difference (sex of subject, grade) variables in observational paired-associate learning. In Experiments I–III, vicarious subjects received cycles of study-model-test trials, while direct subjects were given the same sequences with intervening test or stimulus familiarization trials. In Experiment IV, vicarious subjects received cycles of study-test-model-test trials, while direct subjects received the cycles with a test trial replacing the model trial. No confirmation was provided on test and model trials. Whereas the effects attributable to social and individual difference variables were generally negligible, mere accuracy of the model's responses repeatedly covaried with performance on the last test trial of each cycle. Conditional analyses established that (1) vicarious facilitation is comparable across cycles and localized in items responded to incorrectly on immediately preceding test trials, and (2) observers learn fewer incorrect than correct model responses. Vicarious groups performed at reliably higher levels than direct subjects on model correct but not incorrect items. The results strongly suggest a close correspondence between direct and vicarious verbal learning principles and mechanisms.