Effects of number and location of bins on plastic recycling at a university

The proportion of plastic bottles that consumers placed in appropriate recycling receptacles rather than trash bins was examined across 3 buildings on a university campus. We extended previous research on interventions to increase recycling by controlling the number of recycling receptacles across conditions and by examining receptacle location without the use of posted signs. Manipulating the appearance or number of recycling bins in common areas did not increase recycling. Consumers recycled substantially more plastic bottles when the recycling bins were located in classrooms.     

Evaluating increased effort for item disposal to improve recycling at a university

An evaluation of increased response effort to dispose of items was conducted to improve recycling at a university. Signs prompting individuals to recycle and notifying them of the location of trash and recycling receptacles were posted in each phase. During the intervention, trashcans were removed from the classrooms, and one large trashcan was available in the hallway next to the recycling receptacles. Results showed that correct recycling increased, and trash left in classrooms increased initially during the second intervention phase before returning to baseline levels.     

INCREASING RECYCLING IN ACADEMIC BUILDINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION

We placed recycling receptacles in two locations in academic buildings and studied recycling behavior within an ABA multiple baseline design. During baseline, recycling receptacles were placed in a central location. During the intervention, receptacles were moved into classrooms where beverages were primarily consumed. Baseline conditions were then reinstated. The percentage of cans recycled daily increased during intervention and returned to near-baseline levels during withdrawal. The percentage of cans discarded daily in the trash decreased during the intervention and increased to near-baseline levels during withdrawal. Implications of this study include making recycling more convenient in institutional settings.     

Brief report: Effects of informational feedback on aluminum can recycling

The impact of informational feedback on the depositing of aluminum cans in recycling receptacles at a medium-sized university was investigated. Informational signs were placed over 20-recycling receptacles in three academic buildings. Each informational sign was placed at eye level, with the number of aluminum cans deposited for recycling during the previous week displayed in red digits. A 65% increase in the number of aluminum cans deposited in recycling receptacles with the informational signs was observed. Furthermore, removal of the informational signs was observed to reliably decrease the number of aluminum cans deposited. These results are discussed in the context of employing feedback to increase environmental protection behaviors.     

Comparison of health promotion and deterrent prompts in increasing use of stairs over escalators

This study compared the effectiveness of two point-of-decision prompts within the same environmental setting. The effects of a health promotion sign were compared with activity change resulting from a deterrent sign. Individuals were observed using the upward stairs or upward escalator at a midwest regional air port during a 5-week period in which intervention signs were compared with no sign conditions on activity choice. During Weeks 1, 3, and 5 behaviors were assessed without any prompts. During Week 2, a health promotion sign was posted at the behavioral choice point which read "Keep your heart healthy, use the stairs." During Week 4, a deterrent sign which read "Please limit escalator use to staff and those unable to use the stairs" was posted at the same behavioral choice point. Younger (<40) women (14.8%) and men (10.8%) used the stairs more frequently, followed by older women (9.3%) and older men (6.9%). A hierarchical log linear analysis showed that stair use increased during both interventions, which was significantly moderated by age. Point-of-decision prompts appear to be effective environmental interventions for promoting increases in physical activity.     

Office paper recycling: A function of container proximity

We investigated the effects of proximity of containers on pounds of office paper recycled and not recycled by 25 employees. During a memo and central container condition, one container for recyclable paper was provided; in a memo and local container condition, desktop recycling bins, announced by memo, were successively introduced across administrative, office, and instructional settings using a multiple baseline design. Only 28% of paper was recycled in the central container condition, but when recycling containers were placed in close proximity to participants, 85% to 94% of all recyclable paper was recycled. Follow-up assessments, conducted 1, 2, 3, and 7 months after all settings received local recycling containers, showed that 84% to 98% of paper was recycled. Providing desktop recycling containers was a cost-effective procedure with long-term maintenance and program survival.     

PROMOTING SAFETY BELT USE WITH TRAFFIC SIGNS AND PROMPTERS

Two studies were conducted examining the stimulus-control effects of conventional traffic signs as prompts for motor vehicle driver safety belt use. Following pilot research which suggested that a traffic sign reading “Fasten Safety Belt” posted at a parking lot exit was effective in producing small increases in safety belt use, Study I demonstrated the superiority of having human prompters display such signs compared to simply posting the signs. Study II replicated the findings of Study I and found that posted signs became more effective in prompting safety belt use if simple posting was preceded by a period involving human prompters who displayed the signs. The results bear upon the development of more effective use of traffic signs in promoting safety belt use and in viewing such use as an instance of rule-governed behavior.     

Response Interruption and Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior for the Treatment of Pica

Pica displayed by two individuals with autism was decreased by a treatment involving differential reinforcement and response interruption that altered the chain of behavior involved in pica (i.e., picking up items and placing them in the mouth). The treatment involved establishing prompts to ‘clean‐up’ as a new discriminative stimulus (SD) for picking up items from the floor; and holding potential pica items was established as an SD for discarding those items in a trash receptacle, putting them away, or using them appropriately. After demonstrating the effectiveness of the treatment in an analog setting, the treatment package was systematically generalized to community settings. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reinforcement and rate of litter depositing

A study was conducted concerning the frequency of litter deposits in a single experimental trash receptacle located in a high-use, urban park setting. There were four two-week periods of alternating no-contingency, contingency conditions during which reinforcement and incentive were evaluated. It was found that reinforcement resulted in the highest rates of behavior and improvements in the aesthetic appearance of the area.     

Validation,Persuasion and Recycling: Capitalizing on the Social Ecology of Newspaper Use

Two experiments used clinical validation to increase scrutiny of messages posted in public settings. The first experiment used a 2 (validation: no/yes) × 2 (persuasion: none/"it is important") factorial design to develop messages about newspaper recycling. The prompt (no validation/no persuasion) had little impact on newspaper recycling, but the other 3 signs all resulted in increased recycling while the signs were in place. After signs were removed, recycling remained significantly higher than baseline (marginally significant for validation/persuasion). At the end of the study, number of cognitions favoring recycling was significantly higher in the validation-only condition and was lower in the validation/persuasion condition. Experiment 2 tested whether signs would have more impact if they were sensitive to the social ecology of newspaper recycling; that is, readers' tendency to leave newspapers behind so others may read them. Messages based on a 2 (message: validation-only/validation plus persuasion) × 2 (ecology: no social ecology/social ecology) factorial design supported social ecology's importance. Furthermore, because of the increased sharing in the social ecology conditions, total numbers of newspapers used was significantly lower in those buildings. Validation only yielded sustained behavior change in both Experiments 1 and 2, supporting additional research on the question of whether validation can, by itself, lead to cognitive elaboration and self-persuasion.     

Facilitating paper recycling: effects of prompts, raffles, and contests

The effects of prompts and reinforcement to promote paper recycling were compared in six university dormitories. For a Prompt condition, residents were urged to recycle paper for ecological reasons via flyers distributed to each room. For a Raffle contingency, residents were given one raffle ticket for every pound of paper brought to a collection center. For a Contest contingency, two dorms were paired and the dorm whose residents delivered the most paper won $15 for its treasury. Contingency awareness was strengthened via a flyer placed under the door of each resident's room. Flyers alone had little effect in increasing paper-recycling behaviors, but the raffle (substantially) and the contest (somewhat) increased the amount of paper brought to a dorm's recycling center. Students whose rooms were closest to the collection center showed the greatest participation. Removal of the reinforcement contingencies resulted in a return to baseline levels.     

The Effectiveness of Models and Prompts on Waste Diversion: A Field Experiment on Composting by Cafeteria Patrons

This study investigated whether or not visual prompts and human models influence compost‐supportive behavior by individuals in a cafeteria setting. Waste disposal behavior of cafeteria patrons was observed (N = 1,060) after the introduction of (1) pro‐composting signs, and (2) models who demonstrated appropriate composting behavior. Ideal composting significantly increased relative to the baseline with the introduction of the signs (from 12.5% to 20.5%). A further increase (to 42%) was observed when two (but not one) individuals modeled the behavior, and this increase was sustained even after the models were removed. Informational and normative influences may explain the increase in composting. This study further supports the use of prompts and models as a strategy for encouraging pro‐environmental behaviors.     

Increasing driver yielding and pedestrian signaling with prompting, feedback, and enforcement

The effects of an intervention package on drivers' yielding to pedestrians and on pedestrians' signaling their intention to cross the street were assessed using a multiple baseline design. The intervention, which consisted of publicly posted feedback on the percentage of motorists yielding to pedestrians, small signs prompting pedestrians to engage in appropriate crossing behavior, and an enforcement program involving the use of warning tickets and feedback fliers, was sequentially introduced on two streets. The intervention more than doubled the percentage of motorists yielding to pedestrians and increased the percentage of pedestrians signaling their intention to cross the street to over 13% from a baseline level of less than 1%. Near misses involving pedestrians decreased by more than 50% on the narrower of the two streets.     

A MULTILEVEL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF PROMPTING SELF-REGULATION IN TECHNOLOGY-DELIVERED INSTRUCTION

Two studies were conducted to examine the effect of prompting self-regulation, an intervention designed to improve learning from technology-delivered instruction. In Study 1, trainees who were prompted to self-regulate gradually improved their declarative and procedural knowledge over time, relative to the other conditions, whereas test scores declined over time for trainees who were not prompted to self-regulate. In Study 2, basic performance remained stable over time and strategic performance improved over time for trainees who were prompted to self-regulate, relative to the other conditions, whereas performance declined over time for trainees who were not prompted to self-regulate. Trainees' cognitive ability moderated the effect of the prompts on basic performance and task-specific self-efficacy moderated the effect of the prompts on strategic performance. Prompting self-regulation resulted in stronger performance gains over time for trainees with higher ability or higher self-efficacy. These results demonstrate prompting self-regulation improved performance over time, relative to the other conditions, in both online, work-related training and laboratory settings. The results are consistent with theory suggesting self-regulation is a dynamic process that has a gradual effect on performance and highlight the importance of using a within-subjects design in self-regulation research.     

PYRAMIDAL TRAINING: A LARGE-SCALE APPLICATION WITH INSTITUTIONAL STAFF

This study evaluated an indirect method of training 45 institutional direct care staff to conduct behavioral programs. Three supervisors were trained to improve teaching behaviors (instructions, prompts, and consequences) used by the direct care staff while working with severely and profoundly handicapped residents. In addition to training, daily feedback was provided to supervisors regarding performance of their staff. Results of a multiple baseline analysis across teaching behaviors (instructions, prompts, and consequences) and content areas (communication and gross motor skills) showed that providing training and feedback to supervisors resulted in increases in correct teaching behavior by direct care staff. However, teaching behavior newly learned in one content area (communication) did not generalize to the other area (gross motor skills). Data collected on resident behavior showed small but noticeable improvement in terms of correct responses and attending behavior during programming. Results are discussed in terms of the benefits of a pyramidal approach to training institutional staff.     

An analysis of public posting in reducing speeding behavior on an urban highway

The effects of public posting on speeding behavior on an urban highway were assessed using a reversal design. During baseline the percentage of drivers speeding was measured with a concealed radar unit. During the daily posting condition a highway sign was installed which provided feedback on the percentage of drivers not speeding yesterday and the best record to date. This sign was then covered and reintroduced. Results indicated that the sign was effective in reducing speeding behavior. Furthermore, the effects were most pronounced in reducing the speeds of the faster drivers. Next, daily and weekly postings were compared with the sign alone without numerical feedback: results revealed that the weekly posting condition was as effective as the daily posting condition, but that the sign had no influence when numbers were not posted. Finally, the weekly posting procedure remained effective during a 6-month follow-up condition.     

An experimental analysis of anti-litter procedures

This study evaluates the differential effectiveness of six different anti-litter procedures in two neighborhood theaters. The procedures used to encourage individuals in attendance to pick up litter and deposit it properly included: providing litterbags, providing litterbags with instructions to use them, providing extra trash cans, showing a special anti-litter film before the feature film, and providing incentives for the appropriate deposit of litter. In both theaters, the incentive procedures resulted in the removal of over 90% of all litter by the children in attendance, a figure far above that achieved by the other procedures investigated.     

Headway on urban streets: observational data and an intervention to decrease tailgating

A method to collect headway (tailgating) data in an urban setting was implemented and produced reliable headway data on over 25 000 drivers. Data are reported on the effectiveness of two hand-held roadside signs admonishing drivers not to tailgate. One of these signs (that included a reference to “crashes”) had a significantly positive impact on drivers' headway. Drivers’ followed with an average headway of 2.11 s when the sign was absent compared to an average headway of 2.29 s when the sign was present. When the sign was absent, 49.4% of the drivers were in compliance with the 2-second rule compared to 57.5% when the sign was present. The percentage of drivers who followed with a headway of less than 1 s decreased from 7.3 when the sign was absent to 3.0 when the sign was present. Additionally, there was an increase of 10.6 ft in vehicle separation from baseline to intervention.     

INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE HIGH-VOLUME PORTABLE HEADSETS: “TURN DOWN THE SOUND!”

Two studies examined effects of interventions to reduce noise levels from portable stereo headphones. Study 1 examined the effectiveness of warning signs posted in and nearby public elevators with 567 passengers possessing a portable headphone (total N = 7,811). During a 9-day baseline, the mean percentage of headphones played at an observer-audible level was 85%. During a subsequent 6-day warning sign phase, the mean percentage of audible headphones declined to 59%, which increased to a mean of 76% during a second baseline phase (5 days). Study 2 assessed the impact of a student confederate who lowered his or her observer-audible headphone volume at the polite request of a second student confederate. Of the 4,069 elevator passengers, 433 possessed a portable headset. The mean percentage of observer-audible headphones during a 4-day baseline was 85%. Subsequently, a 5-day modeling intervention reduced audible volumes to a mean of 46%. During a second baseline phase of 4 days, the mean level was 77%, and during reintroduction of the modeling phase (9 days) the mean level was 42%. The modeling intervention was significantly more effective with women (53% compliance) than men (29% compliance).     

Implementation of a Self-monitoring Application to Improve On-Task Behavior: A High-School Pilot Study

Technological innovations offer promise for improving intervention implementation in secondary, inclusive classrooms. A withdrawal design was employed with two high-school students in order to assess the effectiveness of a technologically delivered, self-monitoring intervention in improving on-task behavior in a science classroom. Two students ages 14 and 15 with diagnoses of specific learning disability (Student 1) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Student 2) were selected by case manager referral due to difficulties with on-task behavior despite long-term administration of psychostimulant medication. After baseline data were collected, both students were trained in the use of a self-monitoring application (I-Connect) delivered via a handheld tablet. On-task prompts were delivered at 5-min intervals in an ABAB withdrawal design. The intervention resulted in positive, stable improvements in the primary dependent variable of on-task behavior for both students and less clear improvement in the generalization variable of disruptive behavior.