A SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE FOR INCREASING ATTENDING BEHAVIOR IN EDUCABLE MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN

The purpose of this study was to develop a self-instructional package that would aid highly distractible retarded children in increasing their attending behavior in a training and two generalization (a one-to-one and a classroom) situations. Three untrained subjects were monitored for general comparison and social validation purposes. One of these control subjects was distractible and the other two (criterion comparison) were evaluated as not having attentional problems. A multiple baseline design was employed in which training was sequentially introduced across subjects. During training, the experimental subjects were taught through self-instruction to focus their attention and to cope with two tasks, math and printing. After learning the self-instructions the subjects were systematically and sequentially exposed to photo-slides of distracting situations, to audio-distractors composed of noisy lunchroom verbal peer interactions, and to in vivo distractors provided by kindergarten children playing with wooden blocks in the training setting. The entire training procedure was handled in a game-like context to maintain subject interest and to facilitate generalization. The results suggested that the training package produced direct and generalized changes in self-instructional behavior. In addition, a decrease in off-task behavior occurred during math, printing, and also during a phonics program in the one-to-one and classroom situations. However, reliable changes in academic task performance were not observed. Finally, no systematic changes on any of the dependent measures occurred for the three untrained subjects.     

TOWARD A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PRIVATE VERBAL SELF-REGULATION

We developed a methodology, derived from the theoretical literatures on rule-governed behavior and private events, to experimentally investigate the relationship between covert verbal self-regulation and nonverbal behavior. The methodology was designed to assess whether (a) nonverbal behavior was under the control of covert rules and (b) verbal reports of these rules were functionally equivalent to the covert rules that control nonverbal behavior. The research was conducted in the context of teaching shopping skills to persons with mild intellectual disabilities using a self-instruction training format. In Phase 1, 4 participants were successfully taught to perform shopping skills using overt and covert self-instructions. The self-instructions were then blocked under overt and covert self-instruction conditions, which resulted in a reversal of shopping skills to baseline levels. This indicated that the overt and covert self-instructions might be controlling responding. In Phase 2, we demonstrated that the self-instructions, when used as external directives, produced successful shopping with 3 other participants. By demonstrating that self-rules can produce correct responding when used as external directives, we were more confident that it was the self-instructions and not other verbal or nonverbal behavior that controlled responding under overt, covert, and blocking conditions in Phase 1.     

THE FACILITATIVE EFFECTS OF INCIDENTAL TEACHING ON PREPOSITION USE BY AUTISTIC CHILDREN

In a comparison of incidental teaching and traditional training procedures, three language-delayed autistic children were taught expressive use of prepositions to describe the location of preferred edibles and toys. Traditional highly structured training and incidental teaching procedures were used in a classroom setting, and generalization was assessed during free-play sessions. Results clearly indicate that incidental teaching promoted greater generalization and more spontaneous use of prepositions. These findings have important implications for language programming and teacher training, suggesting that incidental teaching should be included as a standard component of language development curricula for autistic and other developmentally delayed children.     

Modification of an impulsive cognitive tempo in emotionally disturbed boys

In order to determine the relative effectiveness of verbal self-instructions and training to delay before responding in modifying an impulsive cognitive style, 15 impulsive emotionally disturbed boys were assigned to one of three groups. The cognitive-training group was given practice in verbal self-instructions, the delay-training group received practice in delaying before responding, and the control group received no training. Posttreatment scores on the Matching Familiar Figures Test showed a significant increase in latencies for both the cognitive and delay-training groups. However, only the cognitive-training group, which had recieved practice in verbal self-instructions, made fewer errors following training. Implications for future research and potential treatment strategies for verbal self-instructions are discussed.     

Generalization of self-instruction training

Forty-eight preoperational and concrete operational first and second graders performed on a training task (Matching Familiar Figures Test) and a generalization task (a perceptual perspective taking task) prior to, and after serving in, one of two instructional groups. The instructional groups were: a no-training control group and a group which received general content self-instructions delivered through a directed discovery procedure. Both preoperational and concrete operational children in the self-instruction group improved significantly at posttest on the training task. On the generalization task only the concrete operational children in the directed discovery group performed significantly better following training. These findings are discussed in terms of the dynamic relationship between an individual's cognitive ability and the format of instructions. The need for provoking the cognitive involvement of the child on the basis of this relationship is stressed.     

TRAINING SUPERVISORS IN A COLLABORATIVE TEAM APPROACH TO PROMOTE PEER INTERACTION OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES IN INTEGRATED PRESCHOOLS

Three supervisors of integrated preschools were trained in a collaborative team approach to encourage resource and classroom teachers to develop strategies that promote peer interaction of all children, including children with disabilities. The focus of classroom teachers' behaviors and the interactive play of children with disabilities were measured daily in both a training (indoor play period) and a generalization (outdoor play period) setting. In a multiple baseline design, supervisors were individually trained in a collaborative team approach using a manual, modeling, and role playing; then they implemented the approach with classroom and resource teachers. We found that after supervisor training, classroom teachers increased their behaviors directed towards children with disabilities and decreased their behaviors directed towards nondisabled children. Moreover, we found a doubling of the interactive play of children with disabilities and, for two of the three classes, an increase in the interactive play of comparison children, randomly selected by the classroom teachers. Changes in both teachers' and children's behaviors were also found in the generalization setting. The implications of the results for interventions in community settings are discussed.     

ACQUISITION AND GENERALIZATION OF COMPLIANCE WITH COMPLEX FIVE-COMPONENT INSTRUCTIONS1

A 7-yr-old bilingual boy of normal intelligence, judged by his school to be deficient in carrying out complex requests, was trained to comply with five-component instructions, e.g., “Give me/the chip/behind/the block/on blue”. Three interchangeable words or phrases were used for each component. Training proceeded in stages. First, the child was trained to identify all individual objects and actions; then to carry out requests involving only the first component, then the first two, then three, etc. On every trial, the visual setting permitted every possible response in the set. A test for generalization to nonreinforced instructions was given at each stage by giving no feedback for all instructions that included one preselected phrase. The phrase selected at each stage was one of the three that was introduced at that stage. As a further test for generalization, nonreinforced instructions were also given that included one additional component: the next to be trained (Probes Ahead). As a test for generalization across settings and instructions, several five-component instructions were presented each session in an unused classroom. These instructions used phrases, most of which were different from those being trained, and which referred to familiar classroom objects. Results showed: acquisition occurred for each stage of training, including the full five-component instruction; almost complete generalization of responding occurred to the subset of nonreinforced instructions; little or no generalization occurred to the Probes Ahead, where an additional untrained component was included; and little or no generalization was seen to the five-component classroom instructions, until training began on the five-component instructions in the training sessions. Performance was also examined for each component. Results showed that when a new component was introduced, correct performance to previously trained components declined, and was little if any superior to performance on the new component. In summary, transfer was found to untrained sentences of the same form as those being trained, even in another setting, where most of the components were different; but poor transfer was found to more complex sentences, and performance declined for previously trained components during training of a more complex sentence. Some features of the training procedure that may have affected the degree and form of transfer were discussed: the necessity for prior training in an appropriate response to the component phrases, the importance of intermixing of reinforced and nonreinforced trials, and the effects of the abruptness with which more complex sentence forms were introduced.     

Effects of Delayed Audio-Based Self-Monitoring on Teacher Completion of Learning Trials

Although instructors may teach effective instructional behaviors in pre-service training programs, pre-service teachers frequently do not generalize those behaviors to classroom practicum settings. Feedback within the practicum setting is necessary to promote generalization, but is often limited by university supervisors’ availability. Using a multiple-probe design across 3 pre-service teachers, we investigated audio self-monitoring as a method to provide feedback on the number of learning trials completed during the prior learning review section of lessons. A completed learning trial represented an opportunity for the students to both respond to a prompt and receive feedback from the pre-service teacher and represents the smallest unit of complete instruction. Results indicated that self-monitoring increased the percentage of learning trials completed by pre-service teachers, but had modest effects on rate of learning trials delivered. These findings are discussed in light of the need for methods that help bridge the gap between university-based training and classroom application of key instructional skills.     

Self-Instruction Training to Increase Academic Performance of Educationally Handicapped Children

Two experiments were designed to test the effects of self-instructional procedures on the academic performance of educationally handicapped children. Self-instructional training consisted of general self-instruction components coupled with explicit instruction in task components. Experiemnt 1 included two severly educationally handicapped children in which self-instruction training for reading comprehension and spelling was assessed. Generalization of training effects was evaluated across person, task, and setting Experiment 2 included one child in which self-instructional training for mathematics and generalization to a classroom setting was evaluated. A multiple baseline design was used in Experiment 1 and a reversal design in Experiment 2 to assess treatment effects. For both experiments, self-instructional training improved academic performance. Generalization occurred across person and task in Experiment 1 and setting in Experiment 2. It was concluded that successful academic performance occurs when self-isntructional statements integrate global strategies while simultaneously directing attention to task specific information.     

Practice Makes Perfect:The Elimination of Stereotyped Body-Rocking Through Positive Practice

A positive practice procedure was used in a public school classroom to reduce the frequency of body-rocking on a 16-year old severely retarded girl. Although previous interventions (DRO, time out, verbal instructions) had proven ineffective, positive practice rapidly reduced the frequency of body-rocking to near zero levels in 7 days of treatment. The procedures were easily carried out and cost-effective, requiring approximately 9 minutes of staff time per day during 20 days of treatment and 1.4 minutes/day during a 135-day follow-up period. Six months of follow-up revealed that response suppression was durable. Little generalization of suppression was observed from the training setting to other settings.     

An anger-control intervention with aggressive delinquent youths

Social problem-solving skills, a self-instructional procedure, and a “thinking-ahead” procedure were taught to institutionalized, aggressive, delinquent adolescents as part of an anger-control intervention package. A multiple baseline design across four subjects and an alternating-treatments design were used. The effects of intervention were assessed on problem-solving ability, use of self-guiding verbalizations for coping with anger provoking situations, reported frequency of anger-control behaviors relative to loss of anger-control incidents, and behavioral progress within the institution. All youths showed improvement during the training of problem solving on hypothetical dilemmas, with some generalization to untrained problems. Follow-up data on some youths suggested maintenance of treatment gains. Three of the youths displayed increased usage of self-instructions and thinking-ahead statements during personal anger-provoking situations. All youths displayed an increase in self-reported anger-control behaviors relative to loss of anger-control. Improvements in behavior outside of the therapy sessions were indicated by positive behavioral progress within the institution.     

USING REINFORCEMENT AND CUEING TO INCREASE HEALTHY SNACK FOOD CHOICES IN PRESCHOOLERS

We examined the effects of behavioral procedures to modify the food choices of preschoolers during a snack period at school (training setting) and at home (generalization setting). In the first experiment, we evaluated the usefulness of nutrition training and a generalization programming strategy of cueing to improve healthy snacking; in the second experiment we investigated the effect of nutrition training alone. In addition, three cases are presented that illustrate individualized procedures to facilitate generalization of healthy snacking to home. Results indicated that children's healthy snack choices increased in the preschool training setting, that generalization to home was achieved only when procedures to program it were implemented, and that the best results were found when the generalization procedures were tailored to the individual child.     

Peer facilitation of generalization in a preschool classroom

Two 5-year-old deviant preschoolers taught each other, as peer-tutors, to identify pictorial figures describing prepositional relationships. During training sessions monitored by the experimenter, the child in the peer-tutor role presented stimulus materials and provided consequences for the responses of the child in the tutee role. An assessment of generalization by each child to an academic classroom setting occurred each day. The data showed that the peer-tutor could facilitate generalization, when the tutee was probed in the peer-tutor's presence. However, it was found that the salience of the peer-tutor's presence was critical to this effect. In particular, when the peer presented the stimuli or offered occasional consequences for some correct responses, generalization was greatly enhanced.This research was supported in part by PHS Training Grant HD 00183, Research Grant MH 11739, and a Dissertation Fellowship from the University of Kansas. Appreciation is expressed to the classroom teachers, Scott Simmons, Janet Wedel, Sue Parker, and Tena McEachern, for their patience and cooperation in the implementation of these procedures, and to Merril Stokes, for her help and encouragement during this study.     

Public transportation training: in vivo versus classroom instruction

This study evaluated a classroom program to teach public transportation usage (bus-riding skills) to retarded persons. Based on a task analysis of specific skills, five retarded male students were taught each of the components of locating, signalling, boarding and riding, and exiting a bus. These skills were taught sequentially, using training procedures consisting of role playing, manipulating the actions of a doll on a simulated model, and responding to questions about slide sequences. Before, during, and after training, subjects were tested on generalization probes in the classroom and in the natural environment. Results of a multiple-baseline design across subjects indicated that up to 12 months after termination of training, each subject exhibited appropriate bus-riding skills on actual city buses. Two other subjects were trained on each skill component in vivo, on city buses, in order to compare the relative effectiveness and efficiency of classroom versus in vivo training. Both of these subjects acquired appropriate bus-riding skills; however, the in vivo training procedure was both more time consuming and expensive than classroom training. These findings further demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of properly designed classroom training procedures for teaching community survival skills to retarded persons.     

Teaching socially valid social interaction responses to students with severe disabilities in an integrated school setting

To evaluate the effects of a procedure designed to teach appropriate social responses to adolescents with severe disabilities in an integrated school setting this study employed an ABA withdrawal design, replicated twice with two students, and an AB design with a third student. Social responses were recorded during daily training sessions and generalization probes. Treatment involved implementation, by the classroom teacher, of a constant time delay procedure utilizing nonhandicapped peers and a socially validated teaching curriculum. The results showed increases in correct responding and decreases in echolalia following intervention. Generalization of appropriate responding to nonhandicapped peers was demonstrated to varying degrees for all participants.     

GENERALIZING ARTICULATION TRAINING WITH TRAINABLE MENTALLY RETARDED SUBJECTS1

A multiple-baseline technique was used to evaluate generalization effects during articulation training with trainable mentally retarded subjects. Four target words were selected for each subject on the basis of whether the subject could articulate the word correctly when it was modelled but could not articulate the word correctly in response to a picture of it. Five different settings were selected for generalization probing and training for each subject. In Setting 1, Experimenter 1 initiated training sequentially on all four target words for each subject. Other experimenters probed for correct articulation generalization in four other settings. Training was initiated in these four other settings sequentially only if correct responding failed to generalize to a setting. Results indicated that it was necessary to initiate training on at least three of the four selected target words in at least one additional setting with an additional trainer before correct responding generalized to untrained settings.     

EFFECTS OF SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING ON SECOND- AND THIRD-GRADE HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN: A FAILURE TO REPUCATE

Bornstein and Quevillon (1976) demonstrated generalization from a 2-hour self-instructional training session to on-task behavior in the classroom with 4-year-old overactive children. In an attempt to replicate this work with older children, eight 7- and 8-year-old hyperactive children were assigned to either a self-instructional training group or an attention-practice control group. On-task behavior in the classroom and performance measures in reading and arithmetic were assessed. The level of difficulty of these tasks was varied. The results of Bornstein and Quevillon's (1976) study were not replicated, although the subsequent introduction of a token program significantly increased on-task behavior.     

Self-instructions as discriminative cues for rule-breaking or rule-following

This experiment examined the relationship between self-instructions and subsequent instruction-following performance, as a function of the history of the consequences for correspondence or noncorrespondence. Subjects were two groups of elementary school children (ages 7 and 8 years). In training, the two groups were exposed to different histories of congruence or noncongruence between self-instructions and consequences for performance. In the Congruent group, subjects were exposed to a series of stimuli to which they were trained to give self-instructions to make, or not to make, a key-pressing response. Reinforcement was given for self-instructing, and responding in accord with the self-instruction. Subjects in the Noncongruent group were trained to give the same self-instructions for the same stimuli, but reinforcement was given for counter-compliance. Subsequently, in a temptation situation, the experimenter gave an instruction not to press for a test stimulus; and subjects were trained to give the inhibitory self-instruction for this stimulus. Subjects in the Noncongruent group showed a high rate of rule-breaking. The effects on behavior of self-delivered instructions depend on the past relations between these events and the consequences for instruction-following. Implications are discussed for moral behavior and cognitively oriented therapy.     

Problem-solving skills training for psychiatric inpatients: An analysis of generalization

A program for teaching problem-solving skills was evaluated with six psychiatric inpatients in a multiple baseline across groups design. Subjects received training on 12 problem situations and the generalization of verbal problem-solving to six novel situations was assessed via probes presented by a novel person in an untrained setting. The generalization of overt behavior was assessed via pre/post contrived in vivo assessments that contained six situations used in training. The in vivo situations were integrated within a sequence of ongoing events in an effort to enhance the ‘naturalness’ of the assessment. The probes revealed some improvement in verbal problem-solving skills, whereas minimal improvement occurred in the post in vivo test. Following the study, an attempt was made to enhance performance by having the trainer conduct a probe and adding verbal prompts to evoke problem-solving during an additional in vivo assessment. Both efforts produced improvements in subjects' performance to a level near that achieved by a normative sample of 20 individuals. The results suggest that in vivo problem-solving may be dependent on the methods used in presenting problem situations as well as situational factors. Issues related to these results and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Teaching Generalized Self-Control to Attention Deficit Boys With Mothers as Adjunct Therapists

Two boys, diagnosed Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity and described as impulsive and lacking self-control, participated in the study. In a mental health setting, a self-instructional training program tailored to the specific behavioral deficits of each subject was introduced sequentially in a multiple-baseline design. Self-instructional training consisted of both conceptual and task-specific verbalizations, and targeted completion of classroom work. Mothers were trained as adjunct therapists and conducted a home training program. Results indicate that both subjects made substantial improvement in percent of daily classroom work completed, were reported as more self-controlled and less disruptive by mothers and teachers, and received higher grades at the end of treatment.