Is the street-crossing behavior with a head-mounted display different from that behavior in a CAVE? A study among young adults and children

The use of virtual reality (VR) has become increasingly popular in the field of traffic psychology, where realistic traffic situations can be simulated and pedestrians‘ actual crossing behavior can be studied. There are two main kinds of pedestrian simulators: one uses a technology based on rear-projection screens (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment, or CAVE); the other uses a head-mounted display (HMD). Despite their extensive use, it is yet to determine whether they are equally suitable for studying street crossing. The present study was aimed at comparing street-crossing behavior and subjective evaluations in an HMD-based (HTC vive pro) pedestrian simulator and a CAVE-like pedestrian simulator, among young adults and 12-year-old children. Thirty young adults and twenty-six children performed 36 street-crossing trials (combining different speeds, traffic conditions, and gap sizes) on each of the two simulators. The results indicated that, compared to the CAVE-condition participants, HMD-condition participants accepted more crossing trials (hence, shorter gaps), initiated their crossings sooner, crossed at a slower speed, had shorter safety margins, and caused more collisions. The main difference between the two devices was in crossing initiation, which occurred markedly earlier (1.72 s) with the HMD than in the CAVE: the perception–action coupling was less finely tuned in the CAVE, probably because visual information in front of the pedestrian was missing due the absence of ground projection and 3D rendering. A significant effect of vehicle-approach speed was observed for both devices, with more unsafe behaviors at 60 km/h than at 40 km/h. Children displayed riskier crossing behavior than young adults did, with more accepted crossings, slower crossing speeds, shorter safety margins, and higher collision rates, especially in the HMD. Compared to the CAVE, the HMD received higher ratings for level of presence and a preference for VR, but also higher simulator-sickness scores. No adverse effects of exposure to virtual reality was found on stereoacuity or postural balance. The suitability of using CAVE and HMD simulators is discussed, especially for studying child pedestrians.     

Teaching pedestrian safety skills to young children: an analysis and one-year followup

Twenty-four elementary school children in grades K-3 participated in a study to teach six street-crossing skills: (1) wait at curb, (2) look all ways, (3) watch vehicle distance, (4) walk, (5) continue to look, and (6) use crosswalk. The effects of an instructional package implemented on the street corner were evaluated using a multiple-baseline design across two groups of six children at each of two schools. Rapid acquisition of pedestrian skills was evident at both schools. Average skill levels improved from 44% during baseline to 97% after training at School A and from 21% to 86% at School B. Data taken at a second street at each school were used to assess setting generality of safety behaviors. A one-year followup of 14 children indicated that pedestrian safety skills either maintained at high levels or could be quickly recovered from intermediate levels after remedial training. This research represents a first step in the solution of just one of the many community problems involving safety-deficient settings.     

Cautious behaviors of pedestrians while crossing narrow streets: Exploration of behaviors using virtual reality experiments

This study explores the cautious behaviors of pedestrians in a typical local street environment using virtual reality (VR)-based experiments under various physical safety design scenarios for roadways. The built environment of this study focused on narrow local roads where frequent daily walking occurs within a neighborhood. VR experiments can provide an objective and accurate measurement of pedestrian behaviors, thus improving the understanding of complicated pedestrian behaviors. Based on experimental data from 200 university students, we identified pedestrians’ crossing behavior that is cautionary or risky concerning various physical safety designs of streets. This study found that there are trade-off relationships between various behaviors which should be systematically studied to produce safer street design guidelines. Furthermore, as the contexts and sequences matter in behaviors for intersection crossing, the interpretation of behaviors should carefully consider the context of built environments and sequential decisions made by pedestrians. This sequential understanding of before- and during-crossing behaviors and their connections expands our knowledge of pedestrians’ crossing behaviors.     

The effect of age and sensation seeking on pedestrian crossing safety in a virtual reality street

A wide range of individual, interpersonal and environmental factors influence the safety of pedestrians crossing the street, including human development (children take more risks than adolescents and adults) and sensation seeking (individuals higher in sensation seeking have greater risk). The interaction between those two variables has not been carefully studied, however. Does the effect of sensation seeking on pedestrian safety vary across human development as cognitive and other skills improve? This study investigated the primary effects of age and sensation seeking, plus their joint effects, on pedestrian crossing in a virtual reality environment. 209 children (10–13 years old), adolescents (14–18 years old) and young adults (20–24 years old) screened to be high and low level in sensation seeking participated. A 3 (age group: child vs adolescent vs young adult) × 2 (sensation seeking: high vs low) × 2 (traffic condition: easy vs harder crossing) mixed factorial design was conducted. Three pedestrian safety outcomes – start delay, missed opportunities and dangerous crossings – were considered. Results showed that when the traffic condition was easier to cross within, the start delay to enter traffic gaps was significantly shorter for children than for adolescents and young adults. There were no significant differences across age groups when the traffic condition was harder to cross within. Pedestrians also missed more opportunities to cross the road when the traffic condition was harder to cross within. Pedestrians low in sensation seeking missed more opportunities to cross than those high in sensation seeking. All age groups had more dangerous crossings during the harder crossing scenario than in the easier one, and adolescents had more dangerous crossings than young adults or children. Finally, the results of hierarchical regression models predicting dangerous crossings showed that traffic condition had a significant predictive effect on children's dangerous crossing behavior, and both high sensation seeking and harder traffic conditions predicted adolescents’ dangerous crossing behavior. No included variables significantly predicted adults' dangerous crossing behavior. We conclude that both age and sensation-seeking contribute to pedestrian safety. The effect of sensation seeking does not vary widely by age group, but its effect on adolescents was somewhat stronger than in the other age groups studied.     

Analyzing pedestrian behavior when crossing urban roads by combining RP and SP data

Considering the high crash rates involving pedestrians on urban roads, it is highly relevant to understanding pedestrian crossing behavior. This paper is the first to combine stated preference (SP) and revealed preference (RP) data to evaluate the impact that individual attributes, trip characteristics, built environment, strategies to prevent unauthorized crossing, and traffic flows have on pedestrians crossing decisions in an urban context. SP and RP surveys were designed and collected in Barranquilla (Colombia) near pedestrian bridges or signalized intersections where direct crossings and a high concentration of pedestrian fatalities related to traffic accidents exist. A logit model was estimated using the data enrichment paradigm. Results show that pedestrians weigh risks and costs when choosing how to cross the road. The trajectories observed in the RP component suggest that people prefer direct crossings; nevertheless, pedestrian bridges and signalized intersections can be attractive alternatives if their location matches the origin or destination of the crossing, and no detour is needed to use them. Waiting time; safety; the fine imposed for jaywalking; personal security, and previous decisions are also variables that influence pedestrian behavior when crossing urban roads. These results can be helpful to urban planners and decision-makers interested in proposing appropriate pedestrian infrastructure. The data pooling technique and the inclusion of a cost-related variable (i.e., fine) allowed computing the willingness to pay and marginal substitution rates for attributes of the built environment and other characteristics associated with the crossing decision. Also, the inclusion of several crossing alternatives and situations allowed assessing pedestrian crossing preferences under different scenarios.     

TEACHING PEDESTRIAN SKILLS TO RETARDED PERSONS: GENERALIZATION FROM THE CLASSROOM TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT1

Little attention has been given to teaching adaptive community skills to retarded persons. In this study, five retarded male students were taught basic pedestrian skills in a classroom. Training was conducted on a model built to simulate city traffic conditions. Each subject was taught five specific skills involved in street crossing in sequence, viz. intersection recognition, pedestrian-light skills, traffic-light skills, and skills for two different stop-sign conditions. Before, during, and after training, subjects were tested on generalization probes on the model and under actual city traffic conditions. Results of a multiple-baseline design across both subjects and behaviors indicated that after receiving classroom training on the skills, each subject exhibited appropriate pedestrian skills under city traffic conditions. In addition, training in some skills appeared to facilitate performance in skills not yet trained.     

How to keep children safe in traffic: find the daredevils early

Crossing the street in front of oncoming vehicles poses serious danger to young children. But is each young pedestrian similarly at risk? The authors aimed to identify children who are particularly prone to making risky and potentially harmful crossing decisions. They used a simple game involving risk to classify 5- to 6-year-olds as risk takers or risk avoiders. Children classified as risk takers made more crossing decisions at a busy 1-way street than risk avoiders, tolerated shorter time intervals between initiation of the crossing decision and arrival of the next vehicle, and were more likely to cause a (hypothetical) accident. Finally, they made decisions more quickly than risk avoiders. The authors discuss the implication of these results for traffic safety programs.     

Children’s street crossing performance when auditory information about traffic is lacking

PurposeThe current study examined the impact on children’s street crossing behaviors of not having auditory-based information about traffic when crossing streets.MethodUsing a fully-immersive virtual reality system, numerous indices of children’s street crossing behaviors were measured both when they had auditory-based information about traffic and when this was lacking.ResultsThe lack of traffic sounds did not influence the inter-vehicle gap size that children crossed into but it did result in slower initiations and, ultimately, more high-risk outcomes (close calls and hits).ConclusionTraffic sounds significantly contribute to enhance children’s safety when crossing streets. Cars with reduced sounds (e.g., electric) and anything that interferes with children accessing auditory-based traffic information (e.g., wearing headphones) could increase their risk of pedestrian injury.     

Do child pedestrians deliberately take risks when they are in a hurry? An experimental study on a simulator

In order to ascertain whether or not child pedestrians voluntarily take risks, a street-crossing task in an urban environment with vehicle traffic was administered individually to 80 children aged 10 years using a pedestrian simulator. The task, which was presented as a contest, consisted of attaining two objectives in a limited time. The subjects were divided into three conditions that differed only in the number of constraints that had to be taken into account in order to win the contest. The data show that the degree of urgency felt, measured by the amount of time taken, increased as the number of constraints increased. At the same time, the frequency of two of the risky behaviors (not using the pedestrian crossing, running across the road) increased, whereas the frequency of observation failures was independent of the condition. Not using the pedestrian crossing and running across the road were therefore deliberately taken risks, whereas observation failures can be attributed to a control deficit. The discussion includes suggestions for training.     

Pokemon gaming causes pedestrians to run a red light: An observational study of crossing behaviours at a signalised intersection in Taipei City

Since the launch of the smartphone game “Pokemon Go”, the worldwide craze has led to numerous traffic crashes and injuries resulting from falling or tripping. This paper investigates the effects of several smartphone distracting activities (gaming, talking, texting, Web surfing, and listening to music) on the street-crossing behaviours of pedestrians in Taipei City, Taiwan. A field study using video cameras was conducted to observe pedestrian crossing behaviours (e.g., crossing time, sudden movements, running a red light, and walking outside the crosswalk) at a selected signalised intersection. Data such as phone features, distracting activities, and personal attributes of the pedestrians were obtained in interviews conducted after pedestrians had completed crossing the street. In total, 1995 pedestrians engaging in various smartphone activities were observed. Results indicate that unsafe crossing behaviours were more prevalent among those playing “Pokemon Go”. Texting via instant-message apps appeared to be the second-most risk distracting activity. Results of the logistic models reveal that contributing factors to unsafe behaviours include being a student, phone screen of 5 in. or larger, and having an unrestricted 4G Internet data allowance. Two interaction terms (gaming × students, and gaming × unlimited 4G data allowance) in the models appear to be important determinants of unsafe crossing behaviours. The current research suggests that to prevent potential crashes and injuries, smartphone gaming while crossing the street should be prohibited.     

Visual exploration of pedestrian crossings by adults and children: Comparison of strategies

In pedestrian crossing situations, children are less able to make safe crossing decisions compared to adults.The aim of the present study was to analyze and compare the ocular behaviour of children and adults in the pedestrian crossing situations using the eye tracking. The study involved 22 children ranging in age from 5 years to 6 years 2 months and 22 adults. Children and adults participated in a brief eye tracking session designed to explore field of view in road crossing scenarios. They were presented with four pictures of pedestrian crossing and instructed to observe the pictures as if they were on the sidewalk getting ready to cross the road. The eye movements of the subjects looking at the pictures on the screen were collected through the eye tracker.The results showed that adults used a far more intense exploration of the useful visual field of view. They looked at all the different areas of the field of view more frequently and for a longer time. Another interesting point is that the children gazed at areas and elements that are irrelevant to a safe crossing but prove salient for various reasons. Implications for road safety training are discussed.     

Modelling pedestrian crossing behaviour in urban roads: A latent variable approach

As pedestrians are the most exposed and vulnerable road users to traffic accidents, urban planners frequently propose alternatives to improve their safety. However, some solutions, such as pedestrian bridges and crosswalks at signalized intersections, usually imply longer walking distances compared to the direct crossing alternative which, in its turn, involves a higher risk.In this article, a hybrid framework is proposed to analyse the pedestrians’ choice on how to cross an urban road where three crossing options are available: crossing directly, crossing by using a pedestrian bridge or using a crosswalk at a signalized intersection. The decision process is modelled as a discrete choice model incorporating latent variables to consider perceptions and psychological factors, using stated preference data coming from a survey applied in Bogotá, Colombia.Results show that the latent variables security/safety and attractiveness of each crossing alternative are relevant to understand the pedestrian crossing behaviour. These latent variables are strongly determined by socioeconomic characteristics of the individual (age, gender, level of study) and conditioned by the circumstances of the trip (main mode of transport, walking or not with children). It was found that a longer walking distance to a pedestrian bridge or a signalized crosswalk increases the probability of direct crossing, having a more relevant effect in the case of the pedestrian bridge.     

Examining the impact of traffic environment and executive functioning on children's pedestrian behaviors

The process of integrating visual information and planning a safe crossing is cognitively demanding for many young children. We assessed relations between traffic characteristics, aspects of children's executive functioning (EF), and pedestrian behavior, with the aim being to determine whether well-developed EF would predict safer pedestrian behaviors beyond the contributions of child demographic and traffic environment factors. Using the pretend road method, we studied a sample of 83 children aged 6-9 in a series of 5 crossing trials beside a real road in response to actual traffic conditions. Traffic characteristics and pedestrian behaviors were observed and measured across crossing trials. Both traffic characteristics and EF, most notably cognitive efficiency, were strongly related to children's pedestrian crossing behaviors. Traffic characteristics were also found to interact with children's ability to monitor their crossing performance. Examining developmental influences in pedestrian injury etiology broadens researchers' knowledge of and ability to prevent injuries by moving beyond describing what happens to children and examining why pedestrian injuries occur.     

Visual exploration and hazard search strategies in a simulated road crossing task among primary and secondary school students in Tanzania

Pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, and other vulnerable road users represent more than half of all road fatalities globally. In Tanzania, pedestrians account for a significant proportion of the death toll, accounting for 30% of all traffic fatalities (WHO, 2018) and a 2016 study conducted in Dar Es Salaam found that 87% of school-aged children walk to school (Draisin, 2016), highlighting that school-aged children are exposed to a high level of risk.The present work reports the results of a study conducted in primary and secondary schools in the Arusha Region of Tanzania which investigates the students’ road crossing mental representation, as well as their level of hazard perception awareness, through their declared gaze behaviour. The students were asked to identify and tell the areas where hazards could come from within three road crossing scenarios, thus exploring the mental representation of the visual exploration strategies applied by children and teenagers when crossing the road. Results showed the tendency to apply the “compliant gaze behaviour” pattern in a flexible manner and to integrate it with the exploration of other areas in the visual field, particularly by the senior students. Practical implications for planning effective pedestrian road safety training programs are discussed.     

行人过街的认知心理过程和模型

随着交通系统的复杂化,行人安全受到的威胁日益增加。本文以行人穿过马路的心理步骤为切入点,对行人观察感知、判断决策方面的研究进行综述。在观察感知方面,主要分析了观察内容、策略及注意失误的原因,在判断决策方面,介绍了内部心理机制中相关的理论模型,包括效用理论、计划行为理论,以及具体行为机制中的可接受间隙理论,并重点分析了具体行为机制里闯红灯行为的影响因素。最后,本文提出了行人过街的认知心理模型,为以后的行人研究提供理论借鉴,为交通安全提供实践依据。     

Effects of reinforcement and guidance procedures on instruction-following behavior of severely retarded children

Positive reinforcement, physical guidance, and fading procedures were used to teach two severely retarded children motor responses to a variety of verbal instructions. Subjects' responses to one set of instructions provided the focus for the training procedures. Their responses to a second set of instructions were used to assess the generalized effects of training. The frequency of responses to both sets of instructions was evaluated during Baseline 1, Training 1, Baseline 2, and Training 2 periods. During the training periods, this evaluation was made after the daily training sessions when no training procedures were in effect. Results indicated that the subjects showed pronounced increases in instruction-following behaviors (both trained and untrained) during training periods with decreases in such behavior occurring during the Baseline 2 period. The general findings demonstrate the applicability of the training procedures for producing and maintaining instruction-following behaviors in severely retarded children and for facilitating appropriate responding to instructions not directly involved in training.     

An examination of the influence of crosswalk marking removal on pedestrian safety as reflected in road user behaviours

In some local authorities in Israel, road markings were removed from non-signalised crosswalks situated on multilane divided urban roads. This study examined whether this treatment contributes to pedestrian safety, based on the analysis of differences in road user behaviours and pedestrian crossing conditions at sites without crosswalk markings (treatment sites) versus those with the markings (comparison sites). Field observations were conducted at two treatment and four comparison sites, including video-recordings and free-flow speed measurements. The speed data analysis indicated that treatment sites were associated with higher speeds as compared to other sites, at least in one travel direction, and that speed values were sufficiently high to create a threat of severe injury for the crossing pedestrians. Examinations of other road user behaviours showed that treatment sites are associated with higher obedience of pedestrians to safe crossing rules and low rates of pedestrian-vehicle conflicts during the crossing, but also with long waiting times by pedestrians prior to crossing, low rates of giving-way to pedestrians and more vehicles ignoring pedestrian needs to cross. In general, pedestrian crosswalk removal brought about a worsening in the possibility of crossing the road for pedestrians that in combination with high vehicle speeds cannot be recognised as a safety-improving measure. The study did not support the claim that removing a marked crosswalk leads to safety benefits for pedestrians.     

The role of verbal behavior in human learning: III. Instructional effects in children

Lever pressing of children from three age groups (2½ to 4, 5 to 6½, and 7½ to 9 years) could produce reinforcers according to a fixed-interval 40-s schedule: (1) Some were instructed to respond at a high rate, others at a low rate, and (2) they were subsequently taught to provide their own spoken self-instructions consonant with the earlier, experimenter-supplied instructions. All subjects who received high-rate instructions responded at a steady, high rate, which was maintained following self-instructional training. The effects of low-rate instructions were directly related to the age of the children. The two older groups produced low-rate patterns, with the oldest children responding at very low rates; effects were least noticeable in the youngest age group. Following self-instructional training, all three groups showed adult-like low-rate behavior and the oldest children showed an improved ability to estimate the interval length. The results provide further evidence of the importance of language as a determinant of human behavior.     

An intercept study of footbridge users and non-users in Malaysia

Road safety of vulnerable road users in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is a major concern. Footbridges or overpasses are pieces of infrastructure designed to allow pedestrians to cross safely. Although there is tension over whether footbridges are the most inclusive and sustainable way to support safe road crossing for vulnerable road users, footbridges are still a predominant piece of infrastructure in LMICs. Therefore, research aimed at optimising the use of footbridges could have an impact on the safety of vulnerable road users. The objective of the present study is to understand the motivational factors influencing pedestrian crossing decisions to use a footbridge in Malaysia. Additionally, the present study investigates the effectiveness of some proposed interventions to change the crossing behaviour of footbridge non-users. An intercept study was conducted in five major cities in Malaysia. Pedestrians answered questions regarding their perceptions about footbridges and previous walking experiences. The analysis was divided into two parts: Firstly, a decision tree analysis was conducted to study the relationship between the observed decision to use or not a footbridge and pedestrians’ perceptions about footbridges and experiences. Secondly, a decision tree analysis was used to identify the effectiveness of proposed countermeasures in increasing the footbridge usage among non-users. The findings showed that the footbridge height and the frequency of using it were associated with a decrease in the likelihood of utilising this structure. Being in a hurry was highly associated with crossing at the street level. In addition, footbridge non-users might change their behaviour if escalators or fences are provided as interventions. The results indicated that safety messages delivered through posters to alert footbridge non-users have the potential to sustain safe mobility. A user-centred approach is necessary to increase the usability of footbridges in LMICs.     

TRAINING PARENTS IN BEHAVIORAL SELF-MANAGEMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

This study examined the generalization and maintenance effects of three phases of parent training (Instructions plus Feedback and two Self-management Training phases) on levels of disruptive child behavior and the accuracy with which parents implemented programs. Data were collected from five families in three main settings: the initial training setting (the home), a variety of generalization settings in the community, and the family breakfast. A multiple baseline across subjects design was used. Instructions plus Feedback comprised instructing parents to use a range of behavior management procedures and provided home-based differential feedback concerning accuracy of program implementation. Self-management Training phases involved training parents in goal setting, self-monitoring, and planning skills, specific to their performance of appropriate parenting skills in generalization settings. Results indicated that the Instructions plus Feedback phase was sufficient to produce reduced levels of problem behavior at home and high levels of accurate implementation, but generalization effects out of home were equivocal. Self-management maintained reduced levels of problem behavior at home but, in addition, resulted in generalization effects in community settings for both children and parents. Maintenance probes 3 months following the program revealed the effects had been maintained.