Computer-assisted observer training

Computerized interactive videotapes were used to train college students to use a 10-second partial-interval observational recording system. Students viewed videotapes and scored response occurrences on a computer keyboard. Incorrect scoring resulted in immediate computerized feedback and rescoring.     

Depth perception by the active observer

The connection between perception and action has classically been studied in one direction only: the effect of perception on subsequent action. Although our actions can modify our perceptions externally, by modifying the world or our view of it, it has recently become clear that even without this external feedback the preparation and execution of a variety of motor actions can have an effect on three-dimensional perceptual processes. Here, we review the ways in which an observer's motor actions--locomotion, head and eye movements, and object manipulation--affect his or her perception and representation of three-dimensional objects and space. Allowing observers to act can drastically change the way they perceive the third dimension, as well as how scientists view depth perception.     

Field and observer modes of remembering

Abstract

Nigro and Neisser (1983) contrasted two ways of remembering personal experiences: the rememberer may ‘see’ the event from his or her perspective as in normal perception, or ‘see’ the self engaged in the event as an observer would. Several factors contribute to the determination of perspective, but Nigro and Neisser also reported that many subjects claimed they could change to another perspective at will. We sampled personal memories from several life periods and assessed ability to change the initially reported perspective. Changing was easier for recent or vividly recalled events, harder for older and less vividly recalled events. Memory perspectives may differ in other aspects than their imagery. A second study was conducted to determine whether affective experience is altered when perspectives are changed. The affect experienced decreased when shifting from a field to an observer perspective, but did not change with the converse shift. These studies provide further evidence that remembering is more than retrieval. The information that enters awareness is determined by the information sources in memory and the organisational scheme adopted for recollection.     

Developing the internal observer in professionals in training

Fonagy (Fonagy, Steele, Steele, Moran, & Higgitt, 1991) defines the “self” as the immediate experience of life and the “reflective self” as the internal observer of mental life that knows the “self” and reflects upon mental experience, both conscious and unconscious. Developing this internal observing self has been found to be an extremely valuable skill that enhances the capacities of those working in the caring professions and with relationships. The technique that has been developed is called Infant Observation because it began with those training in the Child and Family Mental Health field. It has, however, grown and expanded and can involve observing infants, young children, older children, families, and institutions. The evolution in the child of the “reflective-self function” (Fonagy et al., 1991) is seen as an essential step in emotional development. Refining and sharpening this skill in those working with the effects of relationships on relationships is, we would suggest, an equally essential step in the professional development of workers. What we hope to achieve is something akin to the internal observing self, but this internal observer is an aspect of the self, the individual who is capable of self-observation as a professional tool. This paper describes, in two parts, the process by which the skills of trainees in the caring professions can be developed. In the first part, the training experience and the working of the seminar are described. In the second part of the paper, the process of identification with the observing function of the infant observer is explored by presenting a case of a 7-month-old baby girl.     

A review of observer reactivity in adult-child interactions

The present article reviews studies which have examined the question of observer reactivity in adult-child interactions. Seventeen studies were located. Studies were classified according to the paradigm used to examine reactivity, the setting in which the study was conducted, the identification of the child as a behavior problem, and the occurrence and direction (i.e., increases or decreases in the observed behavior) of reactivity. The results indicated that the awareness paradigm has been employed most frequently, the laboratory has been the primary setting utilized, and problem and nonproblem children have been employed with approximately equal frequency. Reactivity was reported in about three-fourths of the studies. For adults positive and neutral verbal and physical behaviors were more reactive than negative behaviors. The positive and neutral behaviors typically increased in the observer's presence. For children conclusions are not warranted at this time as too few studies have examined children's behavior.Preparation of this article was supported in part by NIMH Grant MH28859-01.     

Slope estimation and viewing distance of the observer

The overestimation of geographical slant is one of the most sizable visual illusions. However, in some cases estimates of close-by slopes within the range of the observer’s personal space have been found to be rather accurate. We propose that the seemingly diverse findings can be reconciled when taking the viewing distance of the observer into account. The latter involves the distance of the observer from the slope (personal space, action space, and vista space) and also the eye-point relative to the slope. We separated these factors and compared outdoor judgments to those collected with a three-dimensional (3D) model of natural terrain, which was within arm’s reach of the observer. Slope was overestimated in the outdoors at viewing distances between 2 m and 138 m. The 3D model reproduced the errors in monocular viewing; however, performance was accurate with stereoscopic viewing. We conclude that accurate slant perception breaks down as soon as the situation exits personal space, be it physically or be it by closing one eye.