Assessing White Racial Identity: The White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS)

Prior to the ready availability of Helms and Carter's (1990) White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-W), Claney and Parker (1989) developed the White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS). Using this device they reported finding a curvilinear relationship between the stage of racial identity or consciousness of Whites and their comfort with African American persons. Recently, the WRCDS seems to be gaining acceptance by scholars working in the area of White racial identity. Data, however, are presented suggesting that the WRCDS lacks adequate reliability and concurrent validity and that the findings and future use of the instrument should be questioned.     

White Racial Identity Attitudes and the Ego Defense Mechanisms Used by White Counselor Trainees in Racially Provocative Counseling Situations

This exploratory study examined the relationship between racial identity attitudes and the use of ego defense mechanisms by White counselor trainees during cross‐racial counseling and supervision dyads. The sample consisted of 145 White counselor trainees enrolled in both master's and doctoral programs at 2 small private universities located in the northeastern United States. Results indicated that White counselor trainees at less mature statuses of racial identity attitudes relied on more primitive ego defenses to manage the anxiety experienced during racially provocative counseling and supervision dyads. Implications for counseling and counselor training are discussed in the context of the study's findings.     

The Relationships Among Counselor-Trainees' Gender,Cognitive Development,and White Racial Identity: Implications for Counselor Training

In a study of 82 White counselor trainees enrolled in 3 graduate programs, gender and the lowest stage of cognitive development were found to significantly contribute to the variance in lower levels of the White racial identity. Male trainees who tended to think in dichotomous terms and look to authority to provide the correct answers tended to report attitudes about race reflected in lower levels of White racial identity. Significant relationships were not found between higher stages of cognitive development and higher levels of White racial identity. Implications for training are presented and discussed.     

White Racial Identity and White Racial Consciousness: Similarities,Differences, and Recommendations

To dispel apparent confusion, White racial identity and White racial consciousness are described and contrasted in terms of theoretical conceptualization and measures used. It is recommended that priority be given to the validation of existing or new measurement instruments to provide a sound basis for future findings. Para disipar la confusión aparente, la identidad racial Bianca, y el conocimiento racial Blanco, se describen y son contrastados en términos de sus conceptos teóricos y las medidas empleadas. Se recomienda dar prioridad a la validación de instrumentos existentes o nuevos para proporcionar una base sólida para los deseubrimientos futuros.     

Racism and White Counselor Training: Influence of White Racial Identity Theory and Research

White counselors currently and in the future are projected to constitute the majority of counseling practitioners. In a racist and culturally diverse society, White counseling students need to learn to effectively counsel racially diverse clients. In this article, the inclusion of awareness, knowledge, and skills around racism and racial identity development is discussed as critical to counselor training programs with White counseling students. Intentional and strategic efforts to assist White counseling students recognize their personal racial identity and privileges of racism are presented as tools to assist the counseling profession to reduce the perpetuation of racist attitudes and racism.     

White Counselor Trainees' Racial Identity and Working Alliance Perceptions

Racial identity has been theorized to significantly affect cross-racial counseling relationships (Helms, 1984, 1995). This study examined the direct impact of White racial identity of 124 counselor trainees on working alliance formation in a same-racial and cross-racial vicarious counseling analogue. Regardless of the race of the client, disintegration and reintegration attitudes negatively affected working alliance ratings, and pseudoindependent and autonomy attitudes positively affected working alliance ratings. Implications for counseling, supervision, training, and research are discussed.     

Counselor Demographics,Ageist Attitudes,and Multicultural Counseling Competence Among Counselors and Counselor Trainees

The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship among counselors’ self‐reported multicultural counseling competence and their attitudes of the geriatric population. A statistically significant negative correlation was found between participants’ attitudes of the geriatric population and their self‐reported multicultural counseling competence. Implications for training and practice are provided.     

How Counselor Trainees Respond to Client Anger: A Review

A number of studies have explored how counselor trainees respond to client anger. In addition, researchers have assessed the effectiveness of techniques for teaching counselor trainees how to respond to client anger. This article provides a review of these studies, followed by a discussion of the implications for future research.     

Assessing White Racial Consciousness and Perceived Comfort with Black Individuals: A Preliminary Study

This research examined the relationship between White racial consciousness development and perceived comfort with Black individuals. Participants were 339 White undergraduate students from a large southeastern state university who were asked to complete a two-part inventory: part one measuring White racial consciousness development (a five-stage scale) and part two measuring perceived comfort in situations involving Black individuals. An eta coefficient was calculated, providing evidence for the existence of a strong curvilinear relationship between White racial consciousness and perceived comfort with Black individuals η =.23 at p<.0001. These findings suggest that Whites who are completely foreclosed (stage one) or who are well acquainted with Blacks (stage five) are more comfortable in situations with Blacks than Whites who had a moderate amount of contact with them (stages two, three, and four).     

Relationships Among Multicultural Training,Moral Development,and Racial Identity Development of White Counseling Students

Sixty‐eight counselor education students responded to the Defining Issues Test (J. Rest, 1986) and the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990) to determine relationships among multicultural training and moral and racial identity development. Results of this exploratory study indicate that multicultural training can be helpful in changing modes of information processing related to racial attitudes but does not seem to promote the cognitive complexity needed for moral development. The discussion includes a recommendation for students to discuss ethical dilemmas and participate in active problem solving specific to multicultural issues.     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial Identity Among White Americans: A Replication and Extension

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the influence of White racial identity attitudes on racism. A total of 234 White undergraduate students participated in this investigation. The students completed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms & Carter, 1990) and the New Racism Scale (Jacobson, 1985). Consistent with findings in previous research, White racial identity attitudes were predictive of racism. We also found gender and age differences in White racial identity attitudes. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the role of counselors in addressing racial awareness on college campuses.     

White Racial Identity Development and Religious Orientation

This study investigated psychological dimensions of race and religion by examining the relationship between the White racial identity statuses proposed by J. E. Helms (1984, 1990d, 1995), Contact, Disintegration, Reintegration, Pseudo‐Independence, Immersion/Emersion, and Autonomy, and 4 forms of religious orientation, intrinsic, extrinsic, fundamentalism, and quest. Participants included 233 undergraduates from a public university in the southeastern United States. They completed the White Racial Identity Attitudes Scale (J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990), 3 measures of religious orientation, and a demographic questionnaire. A canonical correlation analysis found 3 significant canonical pairs suggesting that higher and more complex racial identity statuses may be positively related to more integrated and flexible forms of religious orientation. Implications for counseling are noted.     

Racial Identity Development in Middle School: A Case for School Counselor Individual and Systemic Intervention

In middle school, counselors should promote optimal development as students navigate the formative stage of puberty. A search for identity is an important developmental task in early adolescence, but school counselors often neglect racial identity development. Through an actual case of an 8th‐grade student, both individual and systemic strategies that can promote racial identity development are highlighted.     

Assessing Multicultural Competence in Counselor Trainees: A Review of Instrumentation and Future Directions

As the diversity within the U.S. population continues to increase, multicultural counseling competency (MCC) remains a central focus in counselor education and research. Accordingly, assessment of competencies is necessary to ensure culturally appropriate counseling services to an increasingly diverse clientele. This article discusses available tools for evaluating counselors' awareness, knowledge, and skills for working with culturally diverse clients, as well as new directions and trends in MCC assessment.     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial ldentity Among White Americans: An Exploratory Investigation

This research explored the relationship between White racial identity attitudes and racism. Participants were 100 White students from a large midwestern university who were asked to complete the New Racism Scale and the White Racial Identity Inventory. Multiple regression analyses found that White racial identity attitudes were predictive of racism. The study, however, also found gender differences in White racial identity. Results of the study are discussed in terms of implications for developing racial awareness on college campuses.     

White Counselor Self-Awareness: A Prerequisite for Developing Multicultural Competence

This review of the literature examines White counselor self-awareness as an important variable in developing multicultural competence. The self-dimension discussed in this article includes worldview, cultural values, and racial identity. It is suggested that counselor self-awareness is a prerequisite to developing multicultural competence and that an in-depth understanding of these factors may improve the delivery of mental health services to culturally diverse client populations.     

The Multiculturally Responsive Versus the Multiculturally Reactive: A Study of Perceptions of Counselor Trainees

Findings suggest that the completion of or exposure to multicultural counseling coursework or literature does not necessarily indicate an acceptance of or valuing of multicultural counseling literature. Survey results of counselor trainees' observations and perceptions of peers whose perspectives on diversity differ are presented and discussed. Implications for training and supervision are addressed.