自闭症儿童是心灵盲吗?——Gallagher的互动理论述评

在自闭症研究领域占主导地位的心灵盲理论是建立在心灵主义假设和普遍性假设基础上的。这两个假设将他人的心理视为封闭的、隐藏在行为后面的,且我们主要使用读心的方式理解他人。互动理论拒绝这两个基本假设,并整合来自发展心理学和现象学的研究证据将人类社会互动的形式划分为三个层次:原初交互主体性、次级交互主体性与叙事能力。在个体发生学层面上三者前后相继,在成熟个体的社会互动层面上,三者互为补益,但基于感觉-运动的直觉式社会互动是理解他人心理的主要方式。自闭症儿童在原初与次级交互主体性上存在障碍。目前,互动理论既面临诸多挑战,也具有较大的发展与完善空间。     

Developmental trajectory of intersubjectivity in the second and third year of life: Study of fixed-population and random-individual effects

Colwyn Trevarthen claimed that babies have an intrinsic motivation to communicate and engage with others that he called intersubjectivity. Around the ninth month of life, this motivation changes and passes from person-to-person dyadic (primary intersubjectivity) to triangulate a person–person–object relationship (secondary intersubjectivity). Despite the scientific consensus on this developmental leap, few empirical studies explore the trajectory of this more complex form of intersubjectivity between the second and third year of life. One hundred and fifteen free play sessions from 27 mother–child dyads (13 girls and 14 boys) between 9 and 37 months were filmed and were categorized based on the Level of Intersubjective Attunement Scale. The data were analysed using a linear mixed-effects model. Results show both a population trajectory of the levels of intersubjective attunement and random individual differences. We discuss these results in relation to the binomial typical developmental route and interindividual variability.     

Intersubjectivity and interaction in the analytic relationship: a mainstream view

The authors conceptualize intersubjectivity as a meta-theory that reflects the inherent nature of human relatedness and is conceptually independent of any particular theory of mind or school of psychoanalysis. Their view of intersubjectivity joins the emotional life of the analyst to that of the patient and places the analytic relationship at the center of the analytic process. They contrast intersubjectivity with traditional classical conflict theory so as to clarify the relevance of intersubjectivity for psychoanalytic clinical theory and therapeutic practice. In so doing, they hope to direct analysts more firmly toward the study of the unconscious dyadic contributions to the affective, inactive, and interactive dimensions of the analytic situation and their impact upon the patient's actions within and experience of the analytic relationship. To illustrate their thesis, two hours from an analysis are presented in detail.     

Why individuals want money is what matters: Using self-determination theory to explain the differential relationship between motives for making money and employee psychological health

Researchers have debated for years whether money can lead to happiness. Indeed, the findings to date are contradictory in regard to the impact of individuals’ motives for making money on their psychological well-being. This study aimed to reconcile these findings and show that certain motives for making money can be beneficial to individuals’ psychological health, while others can be detrimental, not only by reducing well-being, but also by increasing ill-being. Based on self-determination theory, basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) were hypothesized to be the psychological mechanism explaining these differential effects. More precisely, need satisfaction and need frustration were hypothesized to mediate the relationship between employees’ money motives and psychological health (well-being and ill-being). Our findings suggest that self-integrated motives for making money lead to greater well-being and lesser ill-being by positively predicting need satisfaction and negatively predicting need frustration. On the other hand, non-integrated motives for making money appear to result in lesser well-being and greater ill-being by being negatively associated with need satisfaction and positively associated with need frustration. Together, these findings suggest that money motives can have differential effects on employees’ psychological health depending on whether these underlying reasons are need-satisfying or need-frustrating life goals.     

Mirror neurons and the phenomenology of intersubjectivity

The neurological discovery of mirror neurons is of eminent importance for the phenomenological theory of intersubjectivity. G. Rizzolatti and V. Gallese found in experiments with primates that a set of neurons in the premotor cortex represents the visually registered movements of another animal. The activity of these mirror neurons presents exactly the same pattern of activity as appears in the movement of one's own body. These findings may be extended to other cognitive and emotive functions in humans. I show how these neurological findings might be “translated” phenomenologically into our own experienced sensations, feelings and volitions.     

Acoustic resonance at the dawn of life: musical fundamentals of the psychoanalytic relationship

This paper uses a case vignette to show how musical elements of speech are a crucial source of information regarding the patient's emotional states and associated memory systems that are activated at a given moment in the analytic field. There are specific psychoacoustic markers associated with different memory systems which indicate whether a patient is immersed in a state of creative intersubjective relatedness related to autobiographical memory, or has been triggered into a traumatic memory system. When a patient feels immersed in an atmosphere of intersubjective mutuality, dialogue features a rhythmical and tuneful form of speech featuring improvized reciprocal imitation, theme and variation. When the patient is catapulted into a traumatic memory system, speech becomes monotone and disjointed. Awareness of such acoustic features of the traumatic memory system helps to alert the analyst that such a shift has taken place informing appropriate responses and interventions. Communicative musicality (Malloch & Trevarthen 2009) originates in the earliest non‐verbal vocal communication between infant and care‐giver, states of primary intersubjectivity. Such musicality continues to be the primary vehicle for transmitting emotional meaning and for integrating right and left hemispheres. This enables communication that expresses emotional significance, personal value as well as conceptual reasoning.     

How Resilient Are Our Attempts to Explore the Mind of Another? Commentary on Dr. Karlen Lyons-Ruth's Article

This article discusses whether attachment experiences may shape the quality and consistency of individuals' attempts to explore the minds of significant others, a process Dr. Lyons-Ruth refers to as intersubjectivity. Specific commentary focuses on whether individuals with an insecure or disorganized attachment organization continue to engage in intersubjective processes over the lifespan. To help illuminate these questions, the work of the University College London group on reflective functioning is discussed and directions for future research are suggested.     

Love,commitment, and response to conflict among Cypriot dating couples: Two models,one relationship

Rusbult's investment model of close relationships posits that commitment is a function of satisfaction with the relationship, investments made, and attractiveness of alternatives. Relationship quality is also affected by how partners handle distress and conflict. They may practise exit (leave the situation), voice (speak out their concerns), loyalty (wait loyally for the problem to pass), or neglect (passive‐aggressive or avoidant tactics). Sternberg's triangular theory of love, on the other hand, posits that the ingredients of a successful relationship are passion, intimacy, and commitment. All three are required to produce long‐lasting consummate love, whereas the absence of any of the components leads to other types of relationships such as friendships and infatuations. These models have received cross‐cultural validation in previous research. Their applicability to dating relationships in Cyprus was tested in this study. The primary aim was to examine the applicability of these models to dating relationships in Cyprus and the second aim was to examine whether a combination of these models predicts relationship commitment better than either model alone. An additional goal was to add to the particularly scarce research on intimate relationships among Cypriots. Results indicate that both models are predictive of commitment, but that the triangular model does not add to the predictive power of the investment model. On the contrary, the concept of investment, as measured by the investment model, appears to be important in the understanding of commitment in dating relationships. Conflict resolution styles were also related to relationship quality, consistent with the predictions of the investment model, but in variance with findings regarding married couples in Cyprus. Results are discussed in light of the relevant models, and in comparison to findings of prior research regarding the application of the investment model to marital relationships. The role of the cultural context is also addressed.     

Introduction: A Systems View

Our goal in this series of four papers is a further refinement of a theory of interaction for psychoanalysis, with a specific focus on the concept of intersubjectivity. Psychoanalysis has addressed the concept of intersubjectivity primarily in the verbal/explicit mode. In contrast, infant research has addressed the concept of intersubjectivity in the nonverbal/implicit mode of action sequences, or procedural knowledge. We propose that an integration of explicit/linguistic with implicit/nonverbal theories of intersubjectivity is essential to a deeper understanding of therapeutic action in psychoanalysis today. To shed light on an implicit/nonverbal dimension of intersubjectivity in psychoanalysis, we include concepts from adult psychoanalysis, infant research, developmental systems theories, and nonverbal communication, particularly the distinction between implicit processing out of awareness and explicit processing at the declarative/verbal level. We conclude with an adult psychoanalytic case illustrating the integration of implicit/nonverbal forms of intersubjectivity into adult treatment.     

Gender Differences in Reactions to the Sexualization of Athletes

Participants rated a series of photographs that depicted well-known male and female athletes in a sexualized fashion or not. In general, sexualized targets were perceived as more attractive but as less competent than non-sexualized targets, and for ratings of competence, sexualization effects were greater for female targets. Sexualization had no effects on women’s perceptions of the competence of male targets, whereas for men, sexualization affected their perceptions of the competence of both male and female targets, although the influence of sexualization was stronger for female targets than it was for male targets. These findings suggest that the gender of the target and of the perceiver needs to be considered when evaluating the influences of sexualization. The implications of these findings are discussed within the context of objectification theory, which has focused on the objectification of women by women.     

Avoiding Circularities on the Empathic Path to Transcendental Intersubjectivity

The foundational status that Edmund Husserl envisages for phenomenology in relation to the sciences would seem to suggest that the successful unfolding of contemporary debates in the field of social cognition will be conditioned by progress in resolving certain central controversies in the phenomenology of intersubjectivity, notably in long-standing questions pertaining to the priority of subjectivity in relation to intersubjectivity, and the priority of empathy in relation to other forms of intersubjectivity. That such controversies are long-standing is in no small part attributable to the fact that the debate surrounding Husserl’s seminal attempts to elucidate these problems has placed his account, and certainly his published position, under a certain amount of pressure, pressure which stems from the suspicion that intentionality toward others may be more deeply embedded in subjectivity than the Husserl of Cartesian Meditations seems prepared to admit. Is the primordinally reduced solipsistic subject of the Fifth Meditation really capable of discovering intersubjectivity in the way that Husserl describes, or is such putative discovery (indeed, subjective transformation) already conditioned by a more primitive form of intersubjectivity? This paper investigates two ways in which this kind of “circularity” objection might arise. Firstly, it might be argued that Husserl presupposes an external perspective on one’s own body, a perspective which rationally would have to be correlated with an indeterminate foreign subjectivity. Secondly, the view has been advanced (Zahavi in Husserl and transcendental intersubjectivity: a response to the linguistic-pragmatic critique. Ohio University Press, Athens, OH, 2001b) that horizonal perceptual awareness of another spatio-temporal entity turns out to be essentially intersubjective, on the grounds that awareness of some of an object’s averted aspects commits one to positing the possibility in principle of those averted aspects being available to an indeterminate foreign subjectivity. Objections such as these seem to place the phenomenological enquiry into the encounter with another person at something of a crossroads. On the one hand, they have led some to argue that basic empathy, as Husserl conceives it, must indeed be conditioned by the anonymous constituting influence of a more primitive form of intersubjectivity. On the other hand, the option remains open to seek to defend Husserl’s published position against the charges of circularity. This paper pursues the latter alternative, and argues that, with appropriate clarification, the objections from circularity can be convincingly answered. It will be argued that the key to understanding why the standard Husserlian position can be sustained lies in recognising the centrality of the activity of the imagination as a condition for the possibility of intersubjectivity.     

The Present Moment in the Primary Triangle

ABSTRACT

Daniel Stern described the present moment as “what happens here, now, between us” (BCPSG, 2010, p. 41). Stern considered the present moment as the basic unit of intersubjective communication or the sharing of inner states for both mother-infant pairs and therapist-patient dyads. He emphasized the importance of implicit processes for fostering change in relationships. Evidence collected during the last three decades in the Lausanne Centre for Family Studies points to a parallel, but collective form of intersubjective communication in the family that originates in infancy, thanks to the previously unknown competence of the young infant for multipartite interaction and sharing inner states with others. Collective intersubjectivity opens up new avenues for the understanding of development and change in the family, as well as for family therapy. These results are illustrated in several case vignettes and discussed in reports of conversations with Daniel Stern.     

On “Interactional Semantics” and Problems of Meaning

This article is a comment on papers being published in this special issue concerned with interactional semantics. As these papers are concerned with abstractions, formulations, generalizations, and other uses of categorizations whereby participants’ everyday understandings and interpretations come to the foreground of analysis, I explore the wider issue with which the papers wrestle. That issue is whether problems of meaning—related to subjectivity, intersubjectivity, mutual comprehension, and the like—are pervasive in interaction, or are limited and situational. I examine problems of meaning through the lenses of social theory and ethnomethodology, and take the position that analytic preoccupation with interpretation should be one that follows participants’ own orientations to problems of meaning. This is different from but related to what each author argues in his own paper.     

Help-seeking and helping behavior in children as a function of psychosocial competence

Research on prosocial behavior has supported the belief that psychosocial competence characteristics enhance helping behavior. Tyler and others have hypothesized that helpseeking is also a constructive competence-related behavior. The present investigation was designed to assess whether the correlates of psychosocial competence differences found in more effective psychosocial functioning among primary school children in the U.S. would characterize children in India and be reflected in their help-seeking and helping behaviors. Twenty-eight pairs of 8 to 10-year-old children participated in this 3 × 2 factorial design study. High and low competence subjects were selected using scores on the Psychosocial Competence Incomplete Stories Test (PCIST) adapted for Indian children. Results show that constructiveness of helpseeking and helping were a function of psychosocial competence. This was also a three-way interaction effect of sex and psychosocial competence level of the helpseeker and of the helper on the level of constructiveness of help-seeking behavior. Tyler and colleagues had previously demonstrated that children from the U.S. who are more psychosocially competent (more self-efficacious, interpersonally trusting, and actively planful) function more effectively in their lives. The current results extend those findings by demonstrating that help-seeking and helping behavior are also a function of these psychosocial competence characteristics. They also indicate sex differences in the relationship of psychosocial competence to interpersonal interactions among these children in India. Psychosocial competence and developmental and cultural implications are noted.     

Task Enjoyment: A Mediator Between Achievement Motives and Performance

Task enjoyment is an important component in social cognitive theories of achievement motivation and intrinsic motivation. Combining these theories with the classic achievement-motivation theory we predicted that task enjoyment and its facilitating behavioral manifestations are associated with an approach-oriented achievement motive and only when individuals anticipate forthcoming competence feedback. In the present study we regarded task enjoyment as a mediator between the achievement motive and performance. First, a two-way ANOVA design was adopted. Success-motivated individuals performed better in a reaction task than failure-motivated individuals, and they reported more task enjoyment during performance. This relationship was not dependent on whether competence information had been announced or not. Second, path analyses showed as expected that the relationship between achievement motivation and performance was mediated by task enjoyment. This mediation was observed only under the condition that individuals expected competence feedback. These results were discussed considering current theories of achievement motivation and intrinsic motivation. It is shown that the findings enrich the related nomological networks in some important ways.     

The Interface Between Attachment and Intersubjectivity: Perspective from the Longitudinal Study of Disorganized Attachment

This article considers the interface between the concepts of attachment and intersubjectivity in light of accumulated research on infant development. Both Tomasello (1999) and Hobson (2002) have argued persuasively that the flexible human capability for sharing mental states with others reframes and revolutionizes our older, more highly channeled primate biological heritage. In contrast to this emphasis on discontinuity from primate to human evolution, attachment theorists have stressed the continuities between human attachment and attachment in other primates. The implication of new work on infant intersubjectivity for reframing aspects of attachment theory is first explored. By the same token, however, the extent to which the infant–caregiver attachment relationship functions to maintain positive engagement and regulate the infant's fearful arousal will have escalating consequences over development for the organization of intersubjectivity. Therefore, attachment research has much to offer in understanding the development of joint attention and the sharing of mental states under conditions of increased emotional arousal. The potential contributions of attachment research for understanding the development of intersubjectivity are discussed in light of recent work from the author's lab on forms of young adult symptomatology associated with deviance in the early intersubjective dialogue between mother and infant. The clinical implication emerging from all these diverse areas of research is that fostering more collaborative forms of communication may lie at the heart of evolutionary change, developmental change, and changes resulting from psychodynamic psychotherapy.     

Examining the Relation Between Technical and Global Competence in Two Treatments for Youth Anxiety

Although technical (quality of delivering techniques from a specific treatment) and global (general clinical expertise) competence are believed to be important ingredients of successful psychosocial treatment with youth, there have been few empirical efforts to measure both dimensions. Efforts to understand the role that each competence dimension plays in the process and outcome of youth treatment starts with determining whether the dimensions can be measured separately. This study examined whether scores from measures designed to assess technical and global competence were distinct. Treatment sessions (N = 603) from 38 youths (M age = 9.84 years, SD = 1.65; 60.5% White; 52.6% male) treated for primary anxiety problems within a randomized effectiveness trial were coded. Four coders used observational measures designed to assess technical competence, global competence, protocol adherence, and the alliance. Mean item interrater reliability was .70 (SD = .09) for technical competence and .66 (SD = .05) for global competence. While most components of global competence were distinct from technical competence scores, two components showed redundancy (r > .70). Scores on both competence measures were empirically distinct (r < .70) from scores on measures of protocol adherence and the alliance. Although the measures did not fully distinguish between technical and global competence, our findings do indicate that some components of technical and global competence may provide unique information about competence.     

Self-determination in relation to quality of life in homeless young adults: Direct and indirect effects through psychological distress and social support

The self-determination theory emphasizes the importance of satisfaction with autonomy, competence, and relatedness for a person’s psychological growth and well-being. This study examines associations between autonomy, competence, and relatedness with quality of life in homeless young adults; and whether possible associations are mediated by psychological distress and perceived social support. By means of face-to-face interviews, 255 homeless young adults who receive care from 10 Dutch shelter facilities for homeless young adults have been interviewed (M age = 20, 77% male, 51% Dutch Nationality) shortly after entering the facility. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are all associated with quality of life, with competence as the highest correlate. Psychological distress mediates both competence and autonomy, and social support mediates competence as well as relatedness. These findings emphasize the importance of intervention programs for homeless young adults, focusing on the enhancement of self-determination, especially competence, to improve their quality of life.     

Primary Intersubjectivity: Empathy,Affective Reversibility, ‘Self-Affection’ and the Primordial ‘We’

The arguments advanced in this paper are the following. Firstly, that just as Trevarthen’s three subjective/intersubjective levels, primary, secondary, and tertiary, mapped out different modes of access, so too response is similarly structured, from direct primordial responsiveness, to that informed by shared pragmatic concerns and narrative contexts, to that which demands the distantiation afforded by representation. Secondly, I propose that empathy is an essential mode of intentionality, integral to the primary level of subjectivity/intersubjectivity, which is crucial to our survival as individuals and as a species. Further to this last point, I argue that empathy is not derived on the basis of intersubjectivity, nor does it merely disclose intersubjectivity, rather it is constitutive of intersubjectivity at the primary level. Empathy is a direct, irreducible intentionality separable in thought from the other primary intentional modes of perception, rationality, memory and imagination, but co-arising with these. In regard to the inter-personal level, the concrete relations with others, primary empathy is both the ground for the possibility of the secondary manifestations—pity, sympathy, perspective taking, etc., and motivates them. Thirdly, it is the movement in the core of subjectivity initially generated by shifting attention between the ‘I’ and ‘we’ perspectives and later ‘solidified’ through affect to become shifting identification, which opens up the intersubjective domain. So we can affirm that we are not only born into sociality but our sociality goes to the roots of our being as Husserl, Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty have claimed.