具身认知视角下软硬触觉经验对性别角色认知的影响

文章从具身隐喻的角度, 探讨了软硬触觉经验与男女性别角色认知的交互影响。实验1采用行为实验法, 考察了软硬的触觉经验对性别分类的影响; 实验2采用内隐联想范式, 探讨了男女性别角色词的加工能否激活软硬的隐喻表征; 实验3通过概念启动和知觉判断任务, 考察了性别角色词的概念加工对物体软硬知觉的影响。得出以下结论：(1)社会性别分类表征和社会性别角色表征可通过软硬进行隐喻表征; (2)性别角色词概念的加工会影响物体软硬知觉的判断, 认知判断存在具身效应。     

Cultural Dimensions,Gender, and the Nature of Self-concept: A Fourteen-country Study

Ratings of the importance of and satisfaction with 20 areas of the self were obtained from 3604 first or second year social science undergraduates from 14 countries (15 cultures). Factor analysis at the culture by gender level supported four factors for both sets of ratings. The resulting factor scores were analyzed for mean differences according to the cultural dimension of Individualism-Collectivism by Gender and by correlations with other cultural dimenions and economic indicators. It was found that participants from the 10 collectivist cultures placed greater salience for their self-concepts on “family values” than did those from the individualist cultures. However, this cultural difference was not found for “social relationships”. The expected gender differences, with females valuing “family values” and “social relationships” more highly, were found only for the individualist countries. The findings indicate that there may be a strong cultural level interaction effect between gender and Individualism-Collectivism on the nature of self-conceptions, and that the “family” and “social” aspects of self-concept in collectivist countries need to be considered separately.     

Das Image von Psychologen, Psychotherapeuten und Psychiatern in der Öffentlichkeit

This is a systematic review of studies about the public image of or attitudes toward mental health professionals, particularly psychologists, psychiatrists, and psychotherapists (including psychoanalysts) on the basis of computerized medical and psychological databases (PsycLIT, Pub Med, Google Scholar) and their cross-references with 43 new articles. It is an update of an older meta-content analysis of the same topic (N= 60 primary studies) which analyzed studies, published between 1948 and 1995. Data about their perceived social status, field of activity and clinical expertise, their sex/gender and physical appearance, personality and social interaction (especially those between therapists and clients), their work setting and about differential effects are presented. It becomes obvious that there exists a “shrink”-stereotype, which refers equally to psychologists, psychotherapists and psychiatrists, and which differs from the stereotype of physicians. The appearance of the “shrink” stereotype is male and psychoanalytically influenced (looking as Sigmund Freud in the setting “couch”). The stereotypes of “shrink’s” personality are partially idealisations (warm, intelligent, understanding parental figures) and partially very negative images (the neurotic; the dangerous, manipulative abuser). Public image of “shrinks”, research deficits, methodological problems, and sex/gender issues are critically discussed.     

The Princess and the Penis: A Post Postmodern Queer-y Tale

This paper explores whether postmodern gender theory can fully account for how a “cis” gender (gender and biology match) therapist works with a “trans” gender patient in a relational way. Inspiring contemporary queer theory exists courtesy of experts in the field, but how does a nongender expert deal with the complicated enactments that occur when patient transitions her gender from female to male and then decides to become pregnant? It is suggested that this case may more accurately represent an example of a post-postmodern analysis, in that it holds the dialectic of constructed gender within the realities of a social system that remains deeply gender binaried.     

Possibilities for a Nondominated Female Subjectivity

This essay examines one of the contributions that Sandra Bartky makes to feminist theory. Bartky critiques Foucault for his gender blind treatment of the disciplines and social practices that create “docile bodies.” She introduces several gender specific disciplines and practices that illustrate that the production of bodies is itself gender coded. This essay argues that social practices are not monolithic, but are composed of various strands that may be in tension with one another.     

How social is social inhibition of return?

A number of studies have shown that the motor actions of one individual can affect the attention of an observer. In one notable example, “social inhibition of return,” observers are relatively slow to initiate a response to a location where another individual has just responded. In the present article we examine the degree to which this phenomenon can be considered a social effect. We find that unlike the related social, or “joint,” Simon effect, social inhibition of return is not influenced by competitive versus cooperative interaction, nor by live versus recorded interaction. We do find however that co-actors need to turn-take in order for the effect to occur. Thus, so-called “social” inhibition of return only reaches a minimal threshold to be considered a social phenomenon.     

An Experimental Manipulation of Social Comparison in Social Anxiety

Negative self-appraisal is thought to maintain social anxiety particularly when comparing oneself to others. Work on social comparison suggests that gender may moderate the effects of social comparison in social anxiety. Self-appraisals of the desirability of one's personality may be more important to women, whereas self-appraisal of signs of anxiety may be more important to men. Within each gender, those with high social anxiety are expected to report more negative self-appraisal when comparing themselves to someone else described as high achieving. This study is the first we are aware of that examined gender-based interactive effects after a social comparison manipulation. Participants read a bogus profile of a fellow student's adjustment to college. They were randomly assigned to read a profile suggesting that the fellow student was “high achieving” or more normative in his/her achievements. When comparing to a “high achieving” individual, men with high social anxiety reported the most negative self-appraisals of their signs of anxiety. In addition, greater social anxiety was associated with a poorer self-appraisal of personality only among men. The implications of the findings for conceptualizing the role of social comparison in social anxiety are discussed.     

Adolescents' Conceptualization of Adult Roles: Relationships with Age,Gender, Work Goal,and Maternal Employment

This study concerns the construction of thepersonal stereotypes of “adult” andadulthood roles and the influence of gender, maternalemployment, and employment goals of adolescents informulating a concept of “adult” during twoperiods in adolescence. A sample of 237 adolescents, 12%non-Caucasian, responded to statements reflectinginterpersonal expectations and gender responsibilities attributed to adults. Exploratory factoranalysis indicated a four-factor structure in attitudestoward familial and career roles, ideology of fairness,social status, and rational characteristics, which were gender differentiated by contexts and normreferences. Analyses of variance on the factor scoreindicated girls' and young boys' conceptualizations of“adult” were related to maternal employment status and their career goals; older adolescentboys structured the roles ofparent,worker,and spouse astraditionally gender typed.     

Not a Laughing Matter: Sexual Harassment as “Material” on Workplace-Based Situation Comedies

In her book Sexual Harassment of Working Women Catherine MacKinnon (1979) suggested that “Trivialization of sexual harassment has been a major means through which its invisibility has been enforced. Humor, which may reflect unconscious hostility, has been a major form of that trivialization” (p. 52). In other words, making jokes at women's expense and treating sexual harassment as not serious have contributed to its persistence. Situation comedies can be seen as gauges for what is considered humorous in American culture. To explore the tone of and mood toward sexual harassment in contemporary American society, themes and content of “humorous” material on 56 episodes of five workplace-based situation comedies were examined. Results showed that although sexual harassment is rarely discussed on situation comedies, gender harassment is frequently used as “material,” which leads to further trivialization of a serious social problem.     

Doing and Undoing Gender in Commuter Marriages

Much recent literature has focused on how women and men “do” (and potentially “undo”) gender when juggling home and work responsibilities. Commuter marriages—in which dual-income professionals live apart due to the demands of their jobs—present a strategic context in which to investigate these gendered processes. Drawing upon theoretical work on doing and undoing gender, prior literature about gender dynamics at the nexus of home and work, and data from in-depth interviews with 97 other-sex commuter spouses, this analysis finds that in some ways these nontraditional arrangements are unique sites for undoing gender; yet, in other respects, standard gender roles are crystallized within these relationships. Specifically, for some women, these arrangements provide a respite from domestic demands, enabling them to function as hyper-productive, “masculinized” workers. However, commuter spouses also perform gender in ways that replicate the conventional gender structure. For example, living apart crystallizes many women’s roles as caregivers. These findings have implications for broader literature on gender, family, and work. They also have implications for counselors, institutional practices, and social policy; for instance, they caution against equating female autonomy with gender parity in making family policy.     

Gender,residual deviance,and social control

Focusing on gendered aspects of informal social control, we use a societal reaction approach to examine 15 years of students’ gender norm violation projects. Three predictions regarding differential reaction to women's and men's residual deviance are (a) that there will be no gender differences, (b) that those with less power and status (women) will be sanctioned more or (c) that those with more status resources (men) will be monitored and reacted to more. We discuss methodological advantages of using norm violations to study informal social control. Findings contribute to a more complete theory of how societal reactions to residual deviance are mediated by gender. There were large gender differences in what students chose to do regarding norm violations and little change over time. Male “deviants” were censured more in terms of negativity, strength of reaction, laughter, and homophobia; female “deviants” were censured more as targets of verbal and sexual remarks. We discuss the need for more attention to gender‐specific types of reaction and the role of homophobia in informal social control of men.     

Misgendering and Its Moral Contestability

In this article, I consider the harms inflicted upon transgender persons through “misgendering,” that is, such deployments of gender terms that diminish transgender persons' self‐respect, limit the discursive resources at their disposal to define their own gender, and cause them microaggressive psychological harms. Such deployments are morally contestable, that is, they can be challenged on ethical or political grounds. Two characterizations of “woman” proposed in the feminist literature are critiqued from this perspective. When we consider what would happen to transgender women upon the broad implementation of these characterizations within transgender women's social context, we discover that they suffer from two defects: they either exclude at least some transgender women, or else they implicitly foster hierarchies among women, marginalizing transgender women in particular. In conclusion, I claim that the moral contestability of gender‐term deployments acts as a stimulus to regularly consider the provisionality and revisability of our deployments of the term “woman.”     

Meanings of Gender and Suicidal Behavior during Adolescence

In the United States, gender differences in suicidal behavior rates emerge during adolescence, when females are more likely to engage in suicidal behavior, but are less likely to die as a result of a suicidal act than males. These gender patterns of suicidal behavior are common but not universal, suggesting cultural influences. This article reviews the highlights of the research on cultural meanings of gender and suicidal behavior. Studies suggest that U.S. adolescents perceive nonfatal suicidal behavior as more “feminine” and less potent than killing oneself. Persons who are suicidal in response to a relationship problem are considered more “feminine” than persons who become suicidal in response to an achievement failure. Males are more critical and avoidant of suicidal persons than females, especially when the suicidal person is a male. These beliefs may play a role in decisions about suicidal behavior (what kinds of suicidal behavior are chosen, and under what conditions). Cultural narratives of gender and suicidal behavior may be particularly influential for adolescents because adolescents are in the process of defining their identity, and often take cultural messages about “appropriate” gender behavior more seriously and more literally than adults. The implications of the findings from the research on cultural meanings of gender and suicidal behavior for prevention programs are outlined.     

“Girls Are as Good as Boys at Math” Implies That Boys Are Probably Better: A Study of Expressions of Gender Equality

Although “Girls are as good as boys at math” explicitly expresses equality, we predict it could nevertheless suggest that boys have more raw talent. In statements with this subject‐complement structure, the item in the complement position serves as the reference point and is thus considered more typical and prominent. This explains why “Tents are like houses,” for instance, sounds better than “Houses are like tents”—people generally think of houses as more typical. For domains about ability, the reference point should be the item that is typically more skilled. We further propose that the reference point should be naturally more skilled. In two experiments, we presented adults with summaries of actual scientific evidence for gender equality in math (Experiment 1) or verbal ability (Experiment 2), but we manipulated whether the reference point in the statements of equality in the summaries (e.g., “Boys’ verbal ability is as good as girls’”) was girls or boys. As predicted, adults attributed more natural ability to each gender when it was in the complement rather than subject position. Yet, in Experiment 3, we found that when explicitly asked, participants judged that such sentences were not biased in favor of either gender, indicating that subject‐complement statements must be transmitting this bias in a subtle way. Thus, statements such as “Girls are as good as boys at math” can actually backfire and perpetuate gender stereotypes about natural ability.     

Sexual Intent Perceptions: The Role of Perceiver Experience and the Real‐Person Reduction1

What factors influence the amount of sexual intention accorded to a person's behavior? A perceiver's gender and personal experiences, and the nature of the relationship with the perceived were investigated. Two findings emerged. First, perceiver sexual and dating experiences predicted perceptions in addition to and independent of perceiver gender, but only for a “self” target. Second, hypothetical targets were perceived more sexually relative to targets that represented real people. These findings extended previous research suggesting that features of targets and perceivers in addition to gender are predictive of sexual perceptions. These target features (e.g., “self” vs. other, “real” vs. hypothetical) have distinct influences on sexual perceptions, suggesting that the choice of a target in research studies should be considered carefully.     

Thinking about the Plurality of Genders

Linda Nicholson argues that because gender is socially constructed, feminist theorizing must be about an expansive multiplicity of subjects called “woman” that bear a family resemblance to each other. But why did feminism expand its category of analysis to apply to all cultures and time periods when social constructionism led lesbian and gay studies to narrow the categories “homosexual” and “lesbian”? And given the multiplicity of genders, why insist that feminist subjects are different, resembling women rather than a multiplicity including women as well as not‐women and not‐men?     

Speech style,gender stereotypes,and corporate success: What if women talk more like men?

This study tests competing socialization- and identity-based hypotheses concerning the impact of variations in speech style (powerful/powerless) on perceptions of male and female managerial job applicants. In addition, we investigate the effect of the gender of the observer on sensitivity to variation in speech style. Supportive of the socialization hypothesis, speech style has a significant effect on expectations of “success” and “acceptance” in a managerial position, as well as on attributions of situationally relevant traits regardless of the gender of the applicant. However, the identity perspective is supported by the finding that gender of the applicant affects perceptions of “liking” and attributions of gender-linked traits. We argue that the relevance of evaluative dimensions and traits for a particular context affects the impact of gender on the interpretation of actions. As predicted, female observers were more sensitive to variations in speech style. In fact, the effects of speech style on evaluations of applicants disappeared when only male responses were considered. The implications of these findings for equal opportunity in hiring and promotion are discussed.     

社会分类的特性,维度及心理效应

社会分类是个体基于共享相似性将人群分为不同类别的一种主观心理过程, 具有自动化,灵活性和潜在模糊性等特性.社会分类的维度既包括性别,年龄和种族等自然线索, 也包括语言,职业和社会身份等重要社会线索.在社会分类过程中, 不同维度往往具有相对重要性, 表现为优势维度效应; 不同维度相互之间也会发生作用, 产生交叉分类效应, 研究者从不同的视角对这种交叉分类效应进行了解释.未来研究应该采用多样化的方法和技术从分类主体,分类目标,分类情境以及社会文化因素等多角度探讨社会分类的心理加工机制, 构建更具整合性的社会分类理论模型.     

社会支配倾向研究述评

社会支配倾向是社会支配理论中的一个概念,它反映了个体期望内群体优于和支配外群体的程度。高社会支配倾向者偏好加大不同群体间的阶层差异,并期望优势群体更多地支配劣势群体;低社会支配倾向者偏好缩小不同群体间的阶层差异以增加社会平等,并期望优势群体更少地支配劣势群体。因此,社会支配倾向会影响社会不平等的程度,并可以被用来解释偏见的形成。性别和群体地位等情境因素会对社会支配倾向产生影响,而且社会支配倾向与个体间的支配也是有关系的