Changes in peripheral social partners and loneliness over time: the moderating role of interdependence

We examined the relationships between age, changes in the number of peripheral partners, and changes in loneliness over 2 years among 365 Hong Kong Chinese aged 18-91 years. We also tested the moderating role of interdependent self-construal in the relationships. Results showed that the well-documented negative association between age and number of peripheral partners over time was only significant for individuals with low and medium interdependence but not for those with high interdependence. Moreover, only older and middle-aged adults high in interdependence benefitted from having more peripheral social partners by showing decreased loneliness in the 2-year interval.     

Age differences in social preferences among Taiwanese and Mainland Chinese: the role of perceived time

Socioemotional selectivity theory holds that as people recognize the inevitable constraint of time imposed by mortality, their social goals change, motivating them to limit social contacts to those with whom they are emotionally close. This theory was tested among Taiwanese and Mainland Chinese. As predicted, results showed that older adults (aged 60-90 years) in both cultures were more likely than younger adults (aged 18-30 years) to prefer familiar social partners who were most likely to provide emotionally close social interactions. Mainland Chinese, who as a group have shorter actuarial life expectancy, were more likely to prefer familiar social partners than were Taiwanese. These age and cultural differences were eliminated when differences in perceived time were statistically controlled for.     

Attachment experience and cortisol recovery from romantic conflict among young Chinese couples: A dyadic analysis

Using a sample of young adults, the present study investigated how the participants' attachment to romantic partners was related to that with their parents and peers and how this specific attachment experience was associated with their physiological stress response. We examined 121 pairs of young Chinese (N = 242) heterosexual couples (men's age: 22.26 ± 2.40; women's age: 21.62 ± 2.22) and their attachment to parents, peers, and romantic partners as well as their cortisol recovery from romantic conflict. Robust actor–partner interdependence mediation models showed that women's insecure parental and peer attachment was associated with blunted cortisol recovery from romantic stress through their fearful attachment with romantic partners, whereas men's insecure parental and peer attachment was associated with their partners' adaptive cortisol recovery from romantic stress through their fearful romantic attachment. These findings suggested that women's hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal-axis functioning seemed to be more strongly associated with their own and their partners' attachment relationships compared to men.     

Individual Differences in Habitual Social Goals and Daily Well‐Being: The Role of Age and Relationship Closeness

There is a robust evidence that social approach goals (i.e. approach of positive social outcomes) have positive consequences and social avoidance goals (i.e. avoidance of negative social outcomes) have negative consequences for subjective well‐being in young adulthood. Little is known about individual differences in social goals in later life. The current diary study with young (n = 212), middle‐aged (n = 232), and older adults (n = 229) tested––and supported––the hypotheses that age (i) differentially predicts the strength of habitual approach and avoidance goals in close and peripheral relationships and (ii) moderates the relation of approach and avoidance goals in peripheral (but not close) relationships and daily outcomes (subjective well‐being, subjective health, and satisfaction with social encounters). Older adults compared to younger adults reported higher levels of avoidance goals in peripheral (but not close) relationships. Younger adults who reported high levels of approach goals and older adults who reported high levels of avoidance goals in peripheral relationships experienced the most positive daily outcomes. In addition, social goals moderated some of the associations between (positive and negative) daily interactions and daily outcomes. Results underscore the importance of the closeness of social partners for individual differences in social goals across adulthood. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Season's greetings: adults' social contacts at the holiday season.

Close friends and family play an important role in adults' lives, but little is known about the implications of infrequent or peripheral social ties that adults maintain. Eighty-seven adults, ranging in age from 24 to 87 years (M = 51.25) provided information about their holiday card networks. Participants completed surveys for up to 25 cards that they received during one holiday season (n = 1,405 surveys completed) and provided the holiday greetings as well, if they were willing (n = 1,152 cards). Over half of the cards participants received were from individuals whom participants did not consider to be close friends or family members and whom they had not seen in over a year. Adults of all ages described emotional reactions to approximately one third of the cards they received. Younger adults tended to view their holiday greetings as a means of maintaining or building new social ties, whereas older adults were more likely to view their holiday greetings as a link to their personal past. Receiving a greater number of holiday cards and receiving cards from close social contacts were associated with increased feelings of social embeddedness. Similarities and differences between peripheral ties and close social ties are considered.     

Saving the best for last: how adults treat social partners of different ages

Older adults report more positive feelings and fewer problems in their relationships than do younger adults. These positive experiences may partially reflect how people treat older adults. Social partners may treat older adults more kindly due to their sense that time remaining to interact with these older adults is limited. Younger (n = 87, age 22 to 35) and older (n = 89, age 65 to 77) participants indicated how positively they would behave (i.e., express affection, proffer respect, send sentimental cards) and what types of conflict strategies they would use in response to hypothetical negative interactions with two close social partners, a younger adult and an older adult. Multilevel models revealed that participants were more avoidant and less confrontational when interacting with older adults than when interacting with younger adults. Time perspective of the relationship partially mediated these age differences. Younger and older participants were also more likely to select sentimental cards for older partners than for younger partners. Findings build on socioemotional selectivity theory and the social input model to suggest that social partners facilitate better relationships in late life.     

Social support and subjective well-being among Hong Kong Chinese young adults.

The associations between social support and 3 measures of subjective well-being--depressive symptomatology, negative affect, and positive affect--were studied among Hong Kong Chinese young adults (N = 475) between 16 and 19 years old. Significant bivariate relationships were found between positive affect and all dimensions of social support (including social network size, social contact frequency, satisfaction with social support, instrumental support, and helping others) except composition of social network. Helping others variables and relationship satisfaction variables were negatively related to both depressive symptoms and negative affect. Multiple regression models revealed that satisfaction with relationships with family members and friends was consistently associated with all measures of subjective well-being, and number of friends felt close to was positively related to positive affect.     

Social embeddedness and economic opportunism: a game situation

According to Evolutionary Game Theory, multiple exchanges with partners are necessary to foster cooperation. Multiple exchanges with partners tend to enhance the good experience of the partners and the predictability of their behaviour and should therefore increase cooperativeness. This study explored whether social embeddedness, or the preference for close and stable social relationships, a variable which tends to increase multiple exchanges, is associated with more cooperative attitudes; and whether social embeddedness increases cooperative behavior towards unknown partners in a game situation. The first study, with 169 undergraduates, indicated that social embeddedness (preference for close and durable social relations) was negatively associated with opportunistic attitudes. The second study had a sample of 60 undergraduates playing a Trust Game with unknown partners and showed that self-reported social embeddedness was positively correlated with scores for cooperative economic behavior towards the partners. These results highlight the relationships of social embeddedness with cooperative attitudes and behaviour.     

Predicting women's and men's reactions to geographic separation: relational interdependence matters

Participant sex and a theorized correlate of biological sex, relational interdependence, were tested as relative predictors of the extent to which daters 1) missed and 2) used emotional support to cope when geographically separated from their dating partners. One hundred twenty-four daters completed multiple measures of missing and coping during their colleges' winter breaks. Results from regression analyses indicated that levels of missing and seeking emotional support differed as a function of biological sex. Further, relational interdependence was reliably associated with missing and seeking emotional support in theoretically consistent ways. Mediation analyses highlighted the importance of considering relational interdependence or other individual differences that covary with biological sex when studying close relationship phenomena.     

Relationship work among young adult couples: Romantic,social, and physiological considerations

We examined romantic, social, and physiological variables associated with partners discussing romantic challenges together and with friends, a process known as relationship work (RW). Actor‐partner interdependence models examining 71 heterosexual, young adult couples and their friends suggested social network approval, friendship quality, and partners' perspective taking were each associated with partners' RW patterns. Skin conductance activity readings revealed males universally experienced greater physiological arousal when discussing romantic problems than females. Unexpectedly, both males and females experienced greater skin conductance activity when discussing romantic challenges with friends than with partners. Males were more likely to discuss romantic challenges with friends when their female partners experienced greater baseline skin conductance activity. Findings inform researchers regarding links between romantic, social, and physiological functioning.     

社会隔离对老年人认知功能的影响：有调节的链式中介效应

考察中国文化背景下社会隔离对老年人认知功能的影响,并从认知功能心理影响机制的角度探究孤独感和抑郁的链式中介作用。基于中国老年社会追踪调查（CLASS）,对5162名60岁以上老年人的社会隔离、孤独感、抑郁和认知功能进行研究。结果发现：（1）社会隔离显著负向预测老年人的认知功能;（2）社会隔离可以通过抑郁的独立中介作用以及孤独感和抑郁的链式中介作用间接预测老年人的认知功能,但是孤独感的独立中介作用不显著。研究结论对于减少社会隔离对老年人认知功能的消极影响具有积极意义。     

A Further Study of Grasping

The aim of the present study is to examine prospectively the quality of social networks of Hong Kong Chinese adults. A randomized household survey was employed. A total of 1170 Hong Kong Chinese respondents were recruited to the study. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 79 years, 43% of respondents were male. Findings revealed a negative association between familial trust and social network size. Network trust, social identification, and structural networks were all found to be positively associated with social network size and perceived respect from social network. The importance of family and the prioritization of the needs of the family over individual needs has implications on social network size and formation for Hong Kong Chinese individuals. More research is needed to further examine the importance of familial relationships and the prioritization of family and the impact this has on social network development and maintenance among Hong Kong Chinese.     

Associations Between Proactive and Reactive Aggression and Risky Sexual Behavior Among Emerging Adults

This study examined associations between proactive and reactive aggression and types of risky sexual behavior. Additionally, gender was examined as a moderator of these associations. The sample included emerging adults (N = 232; male = 132) ranging from 18 to 25 years of age. Of the overall sample, 155 individuals (53.5% male) reported engaging in sexual intercourse. Proactive, but not reactive, aggression was uniquely associated with 4 types of risky sexual behavior (i.e., ever engaging in sexual intercourse, number of lifetime sexual partners, number of partners within past 3 months, and frequency of contraception use). Further, associations with number of sexual partners were strongest when levels of reactive aggression were low. With regard to gender differences, proactive aggression was associated with lower likelihood of contraception use in males. Gender also moderated the association between reactive aggression and number of lifetime sexual partners. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

Health Consequences of Online Social Capital among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in China

With the rapid development of Internet techniques in China, more and more Chinese middle-aged and older adults have begun to use the Internet for their daily social interactions, and the resulting online social capital may affect their health. Using data from the Chinese General Social Survey of 2017 (n = 7733, aged 45–90 years old), this study investigated the influence of online social capital on the health of middle-aged and older adults in China, and the Heckman sample selection model was used to address potential sample selection bias in Internet use. The results show that number of online contacts significantly improved the physical health of middle-aged and older adults, while the level of depression was significantly reduced by online closeness of non-specific relationships, but more online interactions may slightly increase their depression. Furthermore, more online contacts were associated with elevated physical health among male, rural, less-educated and middle-aged adults, while more online closeness of non-specific relationships was associated with less depression in almost all subgroups. Online social capital can improve the health of middle-aged and older adults in China, so we should help increase older adults’ access to the Internet and improve their Internet skills to give full play to the positive health effect of online social capital. However, it should be alert to the negative health consequences caused by excessive Internet use.

     

Social interdependence in close relationships: The actor–partner‐interdependence–investment model (API‐IM)

This article introduces the actor–partner‐interdependence–investment model (API‐IM) that was developed to add a dyadic perspective to Rusbult's investment model. The API‐IM is based on interdependence theoretical assumptions and the actor–partner interdependence model. Two studies were conducted to investigate the reliability of the API‐IM. Relationship satisfaction, investment size, quality of alternatives, and relationship commitment were assessed at both partners of 77 (Study 1) and 162 (Study 2) married and unmarried heterosexual couples. Path analyses that applied a structural equation modeling framework revealed a dyadic model that significantly predicts women's and men's commitment by actor effects of satisfaction, investments, and alternatives, and partner effects of satisfaction. Actor and partner effects of satisfaction were significantly moderated by relationship duration and marital status. Marital status also significantly moderated the actor effect of alternatives. The API‐IM supports the concept of social interdependence in close relationships, and it is discussed as a sound dyadic extension of the investment model. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceived parent and friend support for romantic relationships in emerging adults

Positive close relationships with immediate close network members are associated with healthy adjustment among emerging adults (EA). These influence the initiation and maintenance of romantic relationships. A cross‐sectional study (N = 630) explored the role of perceived parental and friend support for the current romantic relationship in relationship quality among early EA (EEA; 18–21 years) and middle EA (MEA; 22–25 years) heterosexuals. Structural equation modeling results showed that in EEA, greater friend support was associated with greater commitment, satisfaction, and investments, and less quality of alternatives. Greater parental support was associated with greater commitment, satisfaction, and investments in MEA. This research advances literature by showing different associations between sources of social support and relationship quality in two EA age groups.     

Dimensions of social capital and life adjustment in the transition to early adulthood

The predictive relations between social capital depth (high-quality relationships across contexts) and breadth (friendship network extensivity) and early-adult, life adjustment outcomes were examined using data from a prospective longitudinal study. Interviews at age 22 yielded (a) psychometrically sound indexes of relationship quality with parents, peers, and romantic partners that served as indicators of a latent construct of social capital depth, and (b) a measure of number of close friends. In follow-up interviews at age 24, participants reported on their behavioral adjustment, educational attainment, and arrests and illicit substance use. Early-adolescent assessments of behavioral adjustment and academic performance served as controls; data on what were construed as interpersonal assets (teacher-rated social skills) and opportunities (family income) were also collected at this time. Results showed that depth was associated with overall better young-adult adjustment, net of prior adjustment, and assets and opportunities. Breadth was only modestly associated with later outcomes, and when its overlap with depth was taken into account, breadth predicted higher levels of subsequent externalizing problems. These findings are consistent with the notion that social capital is multidimensional and that elements of it confer distinct benefits during an important life transition.     

Memories of social interactions: age differences in emotional intensity

The current study examined age differences in the intensity of emotions experienced during social interactions. Because emotions are felt most intensely in situations central to motivational goals, age differences in emotional intensity may exist in social situations that meet the goals for one age group more than the other. Guided by theories of emotional intensity and socioemotional selectivity, it was hypothesized that social partner type would elicit different affective responses by age. Younger (n = 71) and older (n = 71) adults recalled experiences of positive and negative emotions with new friends, established friends, and family members from the prior week. Compared with younger adults, older adults reported lower intensity positive emotions with new friends, similarly intense positive emotions with established friends, and higher intensity positive emotions with family members. Older adults reported lower intensity negative emotions for all social partners than did younger adults, but this difference was most pronounced for interactions with new friends.     

Psychological needs,purpose in life,and problem video game playing among Chinese young adults

The negative impacts of excessive and problematic video game playing on both children and adults are attracting increasing concern. Based on self‐determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000), this study hypothesized that the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are positively associated with purpose in life, which in turn acts as a protective factor against problem video game playing among Chinese young adult players. Through a questionnaire survey with a sample of 165 Chinese adults aged between 18 and 30 years (mean age = 22.7 years), we found that perceived autonomy, competence, relatedness, and purpose in life were all negatively correlated with problem game playing. The demographic and psychological factors explained 38% of the variances of problem game playing. Specifically, gender, perceived relatedness, and purpose in life emerged as the three most salient predictors of problem game playing among the Chinese young adults. The mediating role of purpose in life was evidenced and it was found that purpose in life mediated the influences of the psychological needs proposed by SDT on problem game playing. Moreover, young men were significantly more susceptible to problem game playing than their female counterparts. To conclude, psychological needs and purpose in life influenced Chinese young adults’ vulnerability to problem game playing directly or indirectly. Intervention programs that encourage social involvement and voluntary work, as well as counseling service that helps clients to search for life purpose, are suggested for intervening in problem game playing among Chinese young adults.     

So close,and yet so far: does collectivism foster transparency overestimation?

The present research demonstrated that horizontal collectivism (HC), the tendency to emphasize social bonds and interdependence, is associated with overestimating the extent to which one's preferences, feelings, and behavioral inclinations are transparent to close others. The link between HC and felt transparency was mediated by self-other merging but was not significantly mediated by perceived similarity, behavioral closeness, or metaperception positivity. Evidence of a causal connection was obtained in an experiment where individuals for whom interdependence was primed exhibited greater transparency overestimation than did those for whom it was not. Additional results indicated that higher HC is associated with greater confidence but not greater accuracy in judgments about a friend. The authors argue that other perspective-taking deficits involving overuse of the self in judgments of others should also be exacerbated by the self-other merging that is associated with HC.