不同手指表征方式对数量表征能力的影响

采用距离启动范式,考察中国文化背景下不同手指表征方式对数量表征能力的影响。实验首先验证单手表征中不同手指数量表征方式对小数字（1～5）认知表征的影响;实验2则进一步采用中国人特有的单手手指表征,考察其对大数字（5～9）认知表征的影响。结果表明,小数字中出现了标准手指表征方式语义层面的位置编码、非标准手指表征方式知觉层面总和编码的激活;但大数字中两种手指表征方式均出现了语义层面位置编码的激活。此结果与计算模型理论一致,说明当手指数量从少到多变化时,标准手指表征方式为语义性的符号数量表征;而非标准手指表征方式由知觉性的非符号向语义性符号数量表征过渡。     

手指的感知、运动以及数量表征对数字认知的促进作用

手指是儿童在习得数字符号之前最常使用的表征数量的工具,大量研究都表明手指在数字认知中具有促进作用。但是,目前仍不清楚手指在数字认知中的作用机制。综述从手指感知、手指运动以及手指数量表征三个方面总结了手指在数字认知中所起的作用。手指感知可能通过影响儿童的数量表征能力间接地影响其它数学能力;与表征量有关的手指运动可能促进了数量大小的加工。关于手指数量表征在数字认知中的作用存在两种有争议的观点：一种认为手指数量表征促进了儿童由非符号数量表征向符号数量表征的转化;另一种认为手指数量表征可能是一种数量语义表征方式。未来应该在发展、作用机制、性别差异等方向继续开展研究,进一步探讨手指在数字认知中所起的作用。     

加法运算中数学知识和语义知识的整合

采用语义启动数字匹配任务及其变式, 探讨在中文背景下“和效应”和语义系统的类比一致性及其产生机制。结果发现, 中国学生对“和”目标数字的反应时显著长于对中性目标数字, 表明“和效应”是人类的一种强烈的认知倾向; 人类通过类比映射方式整合数学知识和语义知识; 影响语义加工的因素同样影响数学认知。研究还发现, 被试对中性目标数字的抑制难度受语义匹配任务性质的影响, 在完成类别不一致的探测词匹配任务时, 拒绝中性目标数字的反应时显著长, “和效应”消失, 表明“和效应”不仅源自于对“和”目标数字的激活, 也源自于对中性目标数字的抑制。     

汉字数字与阿拉伯数字的阈下启动研究

该研究采用了反应窗技术和回归分析范式,通过两个实验对汉字数字和阿拉伯数字的启动效应进行了实验探索。结果表明(1)在客观阔限以下,汉字数字和阿拉伯数字都可以被加工到语义水平,而数字的表征形式对启动效应无影响;(2)在本研究中,在启动数字为汉字数字的条件下,当觉察水平高于客观阈限时,不存在启动效应。     

整体-局部条件下的数字加工研究

以局部阿拉伯数字组成整体阿拉伯数字为实验材料,采用数字大小比较任务来探讨在数字加工任务中的整体-局部的干扰效应。实验结果是,数字大小一致反应比不一致反应加工要好;整体与局部之间存在双向干扰,没有发现整体加工优势。文中最后讨论了整体-局部的复杂加工情况。     

一位阿拉伯数字的空间表征

数字数量的空间表征问题是认知心理学领域的研究热点之一。本研究采用Fischer等人的实验范式,探讨了较浅程度加工时一位阿拉伯数字在水平和垂直方向上的空间表征,结果发现:(1)对数字进行较浅程度的加工(仅仅注视数字)时,在水平方向上出现了SNARC效应,即激活了数字在水平方向上的空间表征,数字数量按照小、中、大的顺序自左而右地映射到心理数字线上;(2)对数字进行较浅程度加工时,在垂直方向上没有出现SNARC效应,即未激活数字在垂直方向上的空间表征。     

不同类型材料混合呈现对SNARC效应的影响

采用刺激分类范式,要求被试判断呈现刺激的性质(实验一和实验三)或颜色(实验二),旨在考察随机呈现不同类型刺激材料对数字和字母SNARC效应的影响以及不同类型刺激材料加工中是否存在刺激—反应相容性效应。结果发现:(1)数字和字母性质和颜色分类任务中均未出现数字SNARC效应和字母SNARC效应。(2)数字和字母的性质和颜色分类任务中,左手对字母的反应更快,右手对数字的反应更快。数字和汉字性质分类时,左手对汉字反应更快,右手对数字反应更快,不同类型刺激分类时出现刺激—反应相客性效应。(3)本研究发现不同类型刺激分类加工中存在刺激—反应相容性效应,这种效应可以被自动激活,并具有一定的普遍性。不同类型刺激分类中的刺激—反应相容性效应对SNARC效应具有抑制作用。     

Simon效应对空间-数字反应编码联合效应的抑制作用

采用Simon效应研究范式,以阿拉伯数字为实验材料,三个实验分别要求被试判断呈现数字的空间位置、颜色和大小,系统考察Simon效应、空间-数字反应编码联合效应的加工特点以及两者之间的关系。结果发现:(1)三个实验中,不管采用何种判断标准,被试总是对左侧的数字按左键反应更快,对右侧的数字按右键反应更快,数字加工中出现Simon效应;而对不同大小的数字按左键和按右键的反应时差异均不显著,数字加工中均未出现SNARC效应。(2)Simon效应和SNARC效应不同质,两者的加工机制也互不相同,而且Simon效应对SNARC效应具有抑制作用。(3)Simon效应与SNARC效应相比,Simon效应相对更稳固,SNARC效应则相对更灵活,易受知觉信息变化的影响。     

数字空间联结的灵活性及其内在机制

数字空间联结一直是认知心理学领域研究的热点之一。探索数字空间联结的一个重要指标为空间-数字反应联合编码(spatial-numerical association of response codes, SNARC)效应(左/右手对小/大数反应更快更准确)。以往研究已验证SNARC效应的普遍性及其在方向上的灵活性, 并提出多种理论解释。此外, SNARC效应在加工阶段上也具有灵活性, 其原因可能有：(1)加因素法则的理解偏差; (2)观察的角度单一; (3)观察效标的差异; (4)使用任务的差异。结合以上因素, 提出双阶段(数量信息的空间表征、空间表征到反应选择)加工模型, 不同的操控因素分别作用于两个阶段可能是引起SNARC效应灵活变化的核心原因。未来研究可从对比任务差异、引入不同干扰因素等方面进一步验证双阶段加工模型, 并结合认知神经科学技术揭示数字空间联结灵活性的内在神经机制。     

数字有形状吗?数字信息精确性和品牌标识形状的匹配效应

数字的精确性(精确 vs.大概)会影响人们的各种心理与推断, 本文在已有研究的基础上提出数字精确性与形状之间存在关联。具体而言, 精确数字会更有可能被感知为多角, 而大概数字更可能被感知为圆润。实验1和2分别通过内隐联想测试和消费情境确认这一效应的存在, 实验3进一步探讨了流畅性感知对上述匹配效应影响消费者产品评价的中介作用, 实验4则通过反转数字的性别象征意义, 提出了匹配效应的边界条件：当人们头脑中形成“精确=女性、大概=男性”的联系时, 会产生精确数字-圆润形状和大概数字-多角形状的匹配关系。这些结果说明了数字信息与形状信息之间存在认知关联, 它对理解个体如何加工数字信息、形状信息以及企业如何利用这些信息提供了一定的启发意义。     

Adaptive control of ideomotor effect anticipations

According to ideomotor theory, voluntary actions are selected and initiated by means of anticipated action effects. Prior experiments yielded evidence for these effect anticipations with response-effect (R-E) compatibility phenomena using blocked R-E relations. Daily actions, however, typically evoke different effects depending on the situational context. In the present study, we accounted for this natural variability and investigated R-E compatibility effects by a trial-by-trial variation of R-E compatibility relations. In line with recent observations regarding ideomotor learning, R-E compatibility influenced responding only when participants responded in free choice trials assuming that participants then adopted an intention-based action control mode. In contrast, R-E compatibility had no impact when participants responded according to imperative stimuli throughout the experiment, thus when participants adopted a stimulus-based action control mode. Interestingly, once an intention-based mode was established because of free choice trials within an experimental block, we observed response compatibility effects in free as well as forced choice trials. These findings extend and refine theoretical assumptions on different action control modes in goal-directed behavior and the specific contribution of ideomotor processes to intention-based action control.     

Learning and development of embodied numerosity

Recent empirical evidence indicates that seemingly abstract numerical cognitions are rooted in sensory and bodily experiences. In particular in finger counting finger-based representations reflect a specific case of embodied cognition, we termed embodied numerosity. Furthermore, we suggest that finger-based representations should be considered a distinct representation of number (magnitude) and argue that this representation is activated automatically whenever we encounter a number. We discuss in what way such a theoretical framework can account for the associations of fingers and numbers observed so far. In the final part, we evaluate whether the concept of embodied numerosity should be generalized beyond finger-based representations with particular focus on whether bodily-sensory experiences (such as moving the whole body along the mental number line) may corroborate numerical capabilities. In a series of intervention studies, we consistently observed more pronounced training effects for our embodied numerosity trainings for different age groups, different digital media, different number ranges, and different control conditions. Taken together, we conclude that embodied representations of number (magnitude) exist, are not limited to finger-based representations, and influence number processing in a systematic and functional way that can be used to foster the efficiency of numerical trainings.     

Finger-digit compatibility in Arabic numeral processing

Finger-digit response compatibility was tested by asking participants to identify Arabic digits by pressing 1 of 10 keys with all 10 fingers. The direction of the finger-digit mapping was varied by manipulating the global direction of the hand-digit mapping as well as the direction of the finger-digit mapping within each hand (in each case, from small to large digits, or the reverse). The hypothesis of a left-to-right mental number line predicted that a complete left-to-right mapping should be easier whereas the hypothesis of a representation based on finger counting predicted that a counting-congruent mapping should be easier. The results show that when all 10 fingers are used to answer, a mapping congruent with the prototypical finger-counting strategy reported by the participants leads to better performance than does a mapping congruent with a left-to-right oriented mental number line, both in palm-down and palm-up postures of the hands, and they demonstrate that finger-counting strategies influence the way that numerical information is mentally represented and processed.     

The relation of perception and motor action: ideomotor compatibility and interference in divided attention

Ideomotor theory is one variation of the general position that perception and motor action are related. According to this theory, a perceptual representation of the goal of a response must be generated prior to response initiation. Ideomotor theory can be extended by assuming that generation of this representation, which usually is required prior to motor action, is not needed if the stimulus itself corresponds to the response goal, that is, if the stimulus and response are ideomotor compatible. Because processing to generate the response representation is not needed with ideomotor compatibility, it should be possible to control two responses simultaneously without mutual interference if at least one stimulus-response relation is ideomotor compatible. Although supported in previous work involving discrete responses, this prediction of perfect time-sharing was found not to hold in the experiments reported here. These experiments, unlike those showing perfect time-sharing, involved continuous responses. We propose an alternative version of ideomotor compatibility, in which perfect time-sharing can occur if an integrated stimulus is provided to match the continuous and integrated response.     

Finger-number interaction: an ideomotor account

Recent findings have shown that processing numerical magnitude may interact with finger movements through goal-directed movements. Here we tested these number-finger interactions in a response-effect (R-E) paradigm. During a learning phase, participants read meaningless consonant-vowel (CV) syllables immediately followed by unrelated opening or closing finger movements; during a transfer test, they again named these CV syllables in response to processing a small or a large number. The results showed that responding to a large magnitude number during the transfer phase was slower in an incompatible situation, that is, when the answer was the CV syllable that had been associated to a grip closure during the learning phase. This interference effect demonstrates that ideomotor principles can account for the link between the meaning of numbers and the perception of actions through an anticipated-magnitude code.     

Decade breaks in the mental number line? Putting the tens and units back in different bins.

Most models of number recognition agree that among other number representations there is a central semantic magnitude representation which may be conceptualized as a logarithmically compressed mental number line. Whether or not this number line is decomposed into different representations for tens and units is, however, controversial. We investigated this issue in German participants in a magnitude comparison (selection) task in which the larger of two visually presented Arabic two-digit numbers had to be selected. Most importantly, we varied unit-decade-compatibility: a number pair was defined as compatible if the decade magnitude comparison and the unit magnitude comparison of the two numbers would lead to the same response (e.g. 52 and 67) and as incompatible if this was not the case (e.g. 47 and 62). While controlling for overall numerical distance, size and other variables, we consistently found compatibility effects. A control experiment showed that this compatibility effect was not due to perceptual presentation characteristics. We conclude that the idea of one single number line representation that does not additionally assume different magnitude representations for tens and units is not sufficient to account for the data. Finally, we discuss why decade effects were not found in other experimental settings.     

Movement observation affects movement execution in a simple response task

The present study was designed to examine the hypothesis that stimulus-response arrangements with high ideomotor compatibility lead to substantial compatibility effects even in simple response tasks. In Experiment 1, participants executed pre-instructed finger movements in response to compatible and incompatible finger movements. A pronounced reaction time advantage was found for compatible as compared to incompatible trials. Experiment 2 revealed a much smaller compatibility effect for less ideomotor-compatible object movements compared to finger movements. Experiment 3 presented normal stimuli (hand upright) and flipped stimuli (hand upside-down). Two components were found to contribute to the compatibility effect, a dynamic spatial compatibility component (related to movement directions) and an ideomotor component (related to movement types). The implications of these results for theories about stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) as well as for theories about imitation are discussed.