The Cross-Cultural Generalizability of Zuckerman's Alternative Five-Factor Model of Personality

Although theories of stress have emphasized the critical role of the appraisal process, the use of dispositional measures of appraisal have not been readily investigated. Using a large multiethnic sample, we examined the factorial validity and dimensionality of a dispositional version of the Stress Appraisal Measure (SAM; Peacock &; Wong, 1990). Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses resulted in a 4-factor representation of dispositional appraisal fitting better than its originally proposed 6-factor representation. This 4-factor model was invariant across gender groups. Although the 6-factor model purported to measure 3 dimensions of primary appraisal and 3 dimensions of secondary appraisal, these factors were found to be highly unstable and had questionable internal consistency. In contrast, the more parsimonious 4-factor solution identified 4 relative distinct and reliable scales of appraisal: 3 primary (Challenge, Threat, and Centrality) and 1 secondary (Resources). These findings suggest that meaningful dispositional dimensions of appraisal can be derived and incorporated into trait–state models of the stress process.     

Relationships among Dispositional Attributional Style,Trauma-Specific Attributions,and PTSD Symptoms

The learned helplessness model and its various revisions suggest that causal attributions influence responses to events. This study examined relationships among the 3-factor symptom clusters of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) represented in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) and the individual dimensions of dispositional attributional style and trauma-specific attributions (i.e., internal–external, stable–unstable, global–specific). Relationships among attributions and clusters of PTSD symptoms represented by the 4-factor dysphoria model were also examined. Trauma-specific attributions were most predictive of PTSD symptoms, with higher associations for avoidance and numbing symptoms compared to arousal symptoms in the three-factor model and higher associations for dysphoria symptoms compared to arousal and avoidance symptoms in the four-factor dysphoria model. Results suggest that cognitive vulnerabilities could underlie the comorbidity between PTSD and depression and might represent a high-impact target for treatment.     

On the dimensionality of the stress-related growth scale: one, three, or seven factors?

We examined the factorial validity and dimensionality of the Stress-Related Growth Scale (SRGS; Park, Cohen, & Murch, 1996) using a large multiethnic sample (n = 1,070). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses suggested that a multidimensional representation of the SRGS fit better than a unidimensional representation. Specifically, we cross-validated both a 3-factor model and a 7-factor model using confirmatory factor analysis and were shown to be invariant across gender and ethnic groups. The 3-factor model was represented by global dimensions of growth that included rational/mature thinking, affective/emotional growth, and religious/spiritual growth. We replicated the 7-factor model of Armeli, Gunthert, and Cohen (2001) and it represented more specific components of growth such as Self-Understanding and Treatment of Others. However, some factors of the 7-factor model had questionable internal consistency and were strongly intercorrelated, suggesting redundancy. The findings support the notion that the factor structure of both the original 1-factor and revised 7-factor models are unstable and that the 3-factor model developed in this research has more reliable psychometric properties and structure.     

Antecedents and consequences of coping in the anticipatory stage of an exam: A longitudinal study emphasizing the role of affect

Abstract

A longitudinal study with three periods of data collection has been designed to test a model concerning the antecedents and consequences of coping in the anticipatory stage of an examination stress process. The model tested focuses on the role of positive and negative affect at an early stage as the main antecedents for coping. Primary and secondary appraisal, and dispositional variables (perceived personal competence and optimism) have been related to early affect. Moreover, the consequences of coping, considered as the affect measured after the deployment of coping strategies, and the grade obtained in the exam, are also tested. Results show that early affect is the main antecedent of displayed coping strategies. Dispositional variables and appraisal are related to affect, and differential effects of coping in later affect have been noticed. No relationship between coping and grade has been found. Implications for research on coping with examination stress are discussed.     

The dynamic nature of the stress appraisal process and the infusion of affect

Very little is known about the process in which people reappraise a stressful environment or the factors that may influence this process. In the current study, we address the several limitations to previous research regarding stress reappraisals and explore the role of affect on this process. A total of 320 participants (mean age = 20 years, 60% male) completed an increasingly demanding team-based coordination task. Mood and stress appraisals were assessed at three time points using self-report surveys during four different waves of data collection. The longitudinal design enabled us to assess primary and secondary reappraisals (change in appraisals during the experiment), task-irrelevant affect (affect assessed prior to experiment participation), and task-relevant affect (change in affect experienced during the experiment). Guided by the Transactional Theory of Stress, we argue that the relationship between primary reappraisal and secondary reappraisal is an accurate representation of a dynamic stress appraisal process. We found that participants were more likely to engage in the stress appraisal process when they experienced less task-irrelevant positive affect and greater task-relevant positive affect. Both task-irrelevant and task-relevant negative affect were not found to influence the stress appraisal process.     

Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis

This study was a meta-analysis of the relationship between personality and ratings of transformational and transactional leadership behaviors. Using the 5-factor model of personality as an organizing framework, the authors accumulated 384 correlations from 26 independent studies. Personality traits were related to 3 dimensions of transformational leadership--idealized influence-inspirational motivation (charisma), intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration--and 3 dimensions of transactional leadership--contingent reward, management by exception-active, and passive leadership. Extraversion was the strongest and most consistent correlate of transformational leadership. Although results provided some support for the dispositional basis of transformational leadership--especially with respect to the charisma dimension--generally, weak associations suggested the importance of future research to focus on both narrower personality traits and nondispositional determinants of transformational and transactional leadership.     

Factor structure of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL: YV) in incarcerated adolescents

Two studies are reported on the underlying dimensions of the psychopathy construct in adolescents as measured by the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Youth Version (PCL: YV; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003). In Study 1, the PCL: YV item ratings for 505 male adolescents incarcerated in 5 different settings in North America were used to test the fit of 3 models that have been hypothesized to represent the structure of psychopathy in adults. A 4th model based on parceling PCL: YV items was also tested. In Study 2, these models were tested with a sample of 233 male adolescents incarcerated in 2 facilities in the United Kingdom. Model fit results indicated that the 18-item 4-factor model developed by Hare (2003) and a modified version of a 13-item 3-factor model developed by Cooke and Michie (2001) were associated with generally good fit. Because the 4-factor model is a less saturated model than the 3-factor model (better parameter to data point ratio), it survived a riskier test of disconfirmation. Implications for the nature of psychopathy in youth are discussed.     

Testing factor models of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version and their association with instrumental aggression

Although there is a documented link between psychopathy and instrumental violence in adult offenders, the association between these constructs has not garnered significant attention in adolescent offenders. In this study, we evaluated the relationship between psychopathy and instrumental aggression in a sample of 122 male adolescents incarcerated in a state facility for serious and chronic offenders. We evaluated the primary (2-, 3-, and 4-factor) models of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003) and assessed their relationship to a separate 5-item measure of instrumental violence. CFA revealed good model fit for the 3- and 4-factor latent variable models of adolescent psychopathy and a single-factor model reflecting a 5-item measure of instrumental violence. Structural equation modeling results indicate that the 4-factor model accounted for 20% of the variance for instrumental violence. In contrast, the 3-factor model of the PCL:YV accounted for 8%, and the 2-factor model accounted for 5% of the variance associated with instrumental violence.     

中小学生正念注意觉知与心理健康：情绪调节和积极重评的跨时间中介作用

本研究探讨中小学生正念注意觉知的发展及其与心理健康的关系,并考察情绪调节和积极重评在其中起到的中介作用。研究采用追踪设计,来自江西地区两所小学(4到6年级)和两所中学(7到9年级)的共1251名学生(男生691人,女生560人)在间隔半年的两个时间点分别填写了测量正念注意觉知、心理健康(生活满意度、抑郁、焦虑、学业压力)、情绪调节以及积极重评的问卷。结果表明：(1)中学生正念注意觉知显著低于小学生;(2)中小学生正念注意觉知与两个时间点的情绪调节、积极重评及心理健康均显著相关;(3)跨时间点中介效应检验结果表明,在中小学生正念注意觉知和各心理健康变量的关系中,情绪调节中介效应均显著,积极重评中介效应均不显著。结论：中小学生正念注意觉知与心理健康密切相关,正念注意觉知通过情绪调节能力间接作用于中小学生心理健康。     

Comparing the relative fit of various factor models of the self-consciousness scale in two independent samples

Research shows that using highly self-aware participants yields studies of higher reliability, validity, and statistical power; dispositional self-awareness is commonly measured using the Fenigstein Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975). This study used confirmatory factor analysis to compare various factor models that may underlie that scale. Two independent student samples (296 from Bernstein, Teng, & Garbin, 1986, and 350 from a large Canadian university) completed the scale. Using 6 fit criteria, results from both samples supported the Burnkrant and Page (1984) 4-factor model, namely, that self-consciousness consists of 3 principle scales: Social Anxiety, Public Self-Consciousness, and Private Self-Consciousness (divided into Internal State Awareness and Self-Reflectiveness). We discuss the psychometric implications of enhancing scale reliability, validity, and self-awareness.     

Why employee psychopathy leads to counterproductive workplace behaviours : an analysis of the underlying mechanisms

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to examine possible explanatory mechanisms linking employee secondary psychopathy to counterproductive workplace behaviour (CWB). Based on the emotion-centred model of voluntary work behaviour we argue that secondary psychopathy is characterized by unfavourable cognitive appraisal tendencies, which in turn positively relate to negative affectivity. We further assume that this cognitive-affective process enhances CWB. We also include primary psychopathy into our research model to test if the presumed mechanism applies to both psychopathy dimensions. We collected daily-survey data from 470 employees (1670 days) and analysed these data using multilevel structured equation modelling. We found strong support for the hypothesized serial mediation model, indicating that secondary psychopathy triggers dysfunctional cognitive-affective tendencies and consequently increases the likelihood of CWB. The proposed model did not hold up for primary psychopathy. Our study outlines the presence of distorted cognition-affective patterns in employee secondary psychopathy only. These patterns seem to play a key role in explaining the link between employee secondary psychopathy and deviant workplace behaviour. Based on this procedural knowledge relevant implications for theory and practice are provided.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the WMS-III in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy

Five competing models specifying the factor structure underlying the Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition (D. Wechsler, 1997b) primary subtest scores were evaluated in a sample of patients with intractable temporal lobe epilepsy (N = 254). Models specifying separate immediate and delayed constructs resulted in inadmissible parameter estimates and model specification error. There were negligible goodness-of-fit differences between a 3-factor model of working memory, auditory memory, and visual memory and a nested--more parsimonious--2-factor model of working memory and general memory. The results suggest that specifying a separate visual memory factor provides little advantage for this sample--an unexpected finding in a population with lateralized dysfunction, for which one might have predicted separate auditory and visual memory dimensions.     

Examining the Factor Structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in Four Distinct Populations: Is the Use of a Total Scale Score Justified?

This study examined the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) using a bifactor model, a higher order model, a 6-factor correlated model, a 2-factor correlated model, and a 1-factor model in 4 distinct populations: college undergraduates (N = 222), community adults (N = 1,394), individuals practicing Buddhist meditation (N = 215), and a clinical sample of individuals with a history of recurrent depression (N = 390). The 6-factor correlated model demonstrated the best fit across samples, whereas the 1- and 2-factor models had poor fit. The higher order model also showed relatively poor fit across samples, suggesting it is not representative of the relationship between subscale factors and a general self-compassion factor. The bifactor model, however, had acceptable fit in the student, community, and meditator samples. Although fit was suboptimal in the clinical sample, results suggested an overall self-compassion factor could still be interpreted with some confidence. Moreover, estimates suggested a general self-compassion factor accounted for at least 90% of the reliable variance in SCS scores across samples, and item factor loadings and intercepts were equivalent across samples. Results suggest that a total SCS score can be used as an overall mesure of self-compassion.     

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in United Nations Peacekeepers: An Examination of Factor Structure in Peacekeepers with and without Chronic Pain

Recent factor analytic investigations of post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans suggest that symptoms are best described by either a hierarchical 2-factor model or a 4-factor inter-correlated model. Other recent evidence suggests that post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic pain are intricately related; however, the nature of this relationship is not well understood. Factor analysis provides one method for clarifying this relationship. In study 1, we compared competing models of post-traumatic stress disorder symptom structure in a sample of 400 male United Nations peacekeepers using confirmatory factor analysis. Results indicated that both the hierarchical 2-factor and the 4-factor inter-correlated models provided good fit to the data. In study 2, the reliability of these models was assessed in 427 male United Nations peacekeepers with chronic back pain and 341 without. Group comparisons of the confirmatory factor analysis results revealed that the structure of the hierarchical 2-factor and 4-factor inter-correlated models both provided good fit to the data in both the chronic back pain and the group without. However, the structure of the models for the group with chronic back pain group differed in significant ways from that of the group without chronic back pain. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in military veterans can be adequately conceptualized using either a hierarchical 2-factor or 4-factor inter-correlated model. Chronic pain has a minimal influence on overall factor structure. The hierarchical 2-factor model, while parsimonious, does not provide the degree of symptom detail provided by the 4-factor inter-correlated model. Implications for conceptualization of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms for patients with chronic back pain and significant post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology are discussed.     

Locus of control predicts appraisals and cardiovascular reactivity to a novel active coping task

These two studies investigated the influence of dispositional locus of control (LOC) on subjective and physiological responses to a novel laboratory stressor task. Across two studies, 64 healthy undergraduate students, ages 18-22, completed Levenson's (LOC) scales for internal, powerful others, and chance prior to performing a video-game task. Participants rated pretask and posttask stressfulness and coping ability (i.e., measures of primary and secondary appraisal). Cardiovascular measures (heart period, HP; preejection period, PEP; respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA; cardiac output, CO; systolic blood pressure, SBP; diastolic blood pressure, DBP & total peripheral resistance, TPR) were recorded during 4-minute baseline and 4-minute stressor task periods. The internal LOC factor predicted pretask reports of coping ability as well as posttask reports of stressfulness. In contrast, the powerful-others LOC factor predicted cardiac changes (HP, PEP, and RSA) during the task but not cardiac output or any other vascular change measure. These results underscore the importance of using the three subscales of the Levenson LOC to assess relationships between dispositional LOC and the response to stressors because self-reported appraisals of a task are predicted by a different component of dispositional LOC than are task-related cardiovascular functions.     

Assessment of the hypochondriasis domain: the multidimensional inventory of hypochondriacal traits (MIHT)

Although hypochondriasis is associated with the costly use of unnecessary medical resources, this mental health problem remains largely neglected. A lack of clear conceptual models and valid measures has impeded accurate assessment and hindered progress. The Multidimensional Inventory of Hypochondriacal Traits (MIHT) addresses these deficiencies with scales that correspond to a 4-factor model. The MIHT was built with construct validity as a guiding principle and began with an item pool that broadly assessed dimensions identified in the literature. The items were administered to large samples; factor analyses of the responses led to item pool revisions and scale refinements. Multiple studies validated the final MIHT scales and 4-factor model; these findings suggest that the MIHT will contribute to theory and research.     

A New Old Question: Do contextual factors relate to rating behavior: An investigation with peer evaluations

The personality (dispositional) characteristic of self‐monitoring, beliefs and orientations toward the performance appraisal of 62 peer raters were collected in an attempt to predict peer rating behavior (i.e., mean ratings, rater discrimination, and performance appraisal dimensions discrimination). The beliefs and orientation toward appraisal systems emerged moderately related to rating behavior measures. Specific variables included in the category termed rating context revealed further illuminating effects. Furthermore, the moderating effect of self‐monitoring on the relationship rating the context‐rating behavior of peers was solidly supported. Theoretical interpretations of the results were discussed.     

Validity of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire in sports and its links with performance satisfaction

ObjectiveThis research project consisted of two studies aimed at validating the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue) in a sports sample.DesignStudy 1 used a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to investigate if the original 4-factor structure of the TEIQue could be replicated in a sample of athletes. In addition, we explored the relationship between trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) and the demographic variables age, sex, type of sport (individual vs. team), expertise, and years of training. Study 2 used a path analysis approach to explore if trait EI is related to performance satisfaction through stress appraisal and coping behaviors.MethodIn Study 1, 973 athletes completed the TEIQue and a demographic questionnaire. In Study 2, 291 athletes completed the TEIQue. Moreover, with a recent competition in mind, they completed the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sports, as well as items on perceived intensity of stress, perceived controllability of stress, challenge and threat appraisals, coping effectiveness, and performance satisfaction.ResultsStudy 1 showed with a CFA that the original 4-factor structure of the TEIQue could be replicated in a sports sample. Of the demographic variables, only age showed a significant positive relationship with trait EI. Study 2 showed that trait EI was related to performance satisfaction through stress appraisal and coping variables.ConclusionsThis research showed that the TEIQue can be used with athletes and that trait EI is useful for understanding certain aspects of sports performance satisfaction.     

The 2 × 2 Model of Goal Orientation and Burnout: The Role of Approach–Avoidance Dimensions in Predicting Burnout

Burnout is typically viewed as resulting from situational factors (e.g., workload). However, as burnout is partly a reaction to frustrated goal striving, dispositional goal orientation may also be important. We used Hobfoll's ( 1989 ) conservation of resources model to develop hypotheses for relationships between goal orientation and 3 dimensions of burnout. Self‐report questionnaire measures of the 2 × 2 model of goal orientation (Elliot & McGregor, 2001 ) and burnout were administered to undergraduate students. Structural equation modeling revealed that all 4 dimensions of goal orientation were related to burnout. Avoidance‐related dimensions were positively associated and approach‐related dimensions were negatively associated with burnout. The findings suggest the importance of considering the role of motivational dispositions in development, prediction, and prevention of burnout.     

Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in United Nations peacekeepers: an examination of factor structure in peacekeepers with and without chronic pain

Recent factor analytic investigations of post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans suggest that symptoms are best described by either a hierarchical 2-factor model or a 4-factor inter-correlated model. Other recent evidence suggests that post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic pain are intricately related; however, the nature of this relationship is not well understood. Factor analysis provides one method for clarifying this relationship. In study 1, we compared competing models of post-traumatic stress disorder symptom structure in a sample of 400 male United Nations peacekeepers using confirmatory factor analysis. Results indicated that both the hierarchical 2-factor and the 4-factor inter-correlated models provided good fit to the data. In study 2, the reliability of these models was assessed in 427 male United Nations peacekeepers with chronic back pain and 341 without. Group comparisons of the confirmatory factor analysis results revealed that the structure of the hierarchical 2-factor and 4-factor inter-correlated models both provided good fit to the data in both the chronic back pain and the group without. However, the structure of the models for the group with chronic back pain group differed in significant ways from that of the group without chronic back pain. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in military veterans can be adequately conceptualized using either a hierarchical 2-factor or 4-factor inter-correlated model. Chronic pain has a minimal influence on overall factor structure. The hierarchical 2-factor model, while parsimonious, does not provide the degree of symptom detail provided by the 4-factor inter-correlated model. Implications for conceptualization of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms for patients with chronic back pain and significant post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology are discussed.