The effects of stimulant drugs on curiosity behaviors of hyperactive boys

The curiosity behaviors of 20 hyperactive boys, both on and off stimulant drugs, and in relation to 20 nonhyperactive boys, were assessed. Comparisons on object, manipulative, conceptual, perceptual, and reactive curiosity tasks indicated that stimulants reduced only the object curiosity task performance of hyperactive boys, although the level tended to remain above that of nonhyperactive boys. Also, hyperactive boys both on and off drugs tended to have lower conceptual curiosity scores than controls. Implications are discussed.     

Problem solving in hyperactive,normal, and reading-disabled boys

Diagnostic problem solving was examined in groups of hyperactive, normal, and nonhyperactive reading disabled boys matched on age and verbal IQ. On the matrix solution task employed (a version of the game of 20 Questions) hyperactives used less efficient questions and strategies than the other two groups, in spite of the task being designed to maximize the performance of the hyperactives. Readingdisabled children were not significantly worse than normal children on the task. The results were interpreted as suggesting that the attentional difficulties of hyperactives retard the development of strategies for solving complex problems. Nonhyperactive reading disabled children may be less affected in this area because of the absence of significant attentional difficulties.This article is based on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research of McGill University by the first author. We are grateful to the students, teachers, and principals of the following schools in the Montreal area: Allancroft, Beacon Hill, Briarwood, Cedar Park, Greendale, Hillcrest, Lakeside Heights, Martinvale, Sunny Dale, Thomas H. Bowes, and Vivian Graham. Special thanks are due Rhonda Amsel, John MacNamara, and Chet Olsen for their help and advice.     

Context effects in the behavioral ratings of hyperactivity

It was proposed that parents of hyperactive children would observe more problems at home in some but not all home contexts. To test this hypothesis, parents of teacher-identified hyperactive and nonhyperactive children were asked to complete a context-specific behavioral rating scale (Werry, 1968). Hyperactive children were rated by their parents as changing activities, talking, interrupting, and exhibiting dependency more than nonhyperactive children. Furthermore, those differences between hyperactive and control children were observed primarily in the play and homework contexts.This research was supported by a National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH(32282).     

Types of private speech produced by hyperactive and nonhyperactive boys

Types and amount of private speech (audible talking that is not addressed to another person) were assessed during the free play of 16 hyperactive and 16 nonhyperactive boys. Verbalizations were coded into nine categories that denoted the boys' level of use of verbal control of their own behavior (Luria, 1961; Kohlberg, Yeager, & Hjertholm; 1968). Differences in amount and type of private speech between hyperactive and nonhyperactive boys were found to indicate that hyperactive boys may be presenting a specific or general cognitive lag in development. Treatment ramifications are discussed.     

Self-control behavior in hyperactive and nonhyperactive children

This study was aimed at evaluating the self-control behaviors of hyperactive (HA) and nonhyperactive (NHA) first-grade pupils under conditions of repeated failure on a previously learned concept formation task. Subjects were divided into HA and NHA groups on the basis of their scores on the Conners (1969) Teacher Rating Scale. During the training stage of the experiment the children learned a concept formation task under a schedule of contingent positive reinforcement. In the test stage they performed the same task but under a negative noncontingent reinforcement schedule. The results revealed no differences in initial rate of learning the task between the groups. After the introduction of the negative noncontingent reinforcement schedule, however, the HA group showed a marked decrease in the use of effective problem-solving strategies. The HA children's performance on the concept formation task was accompanied by the emission of negative self-evaluations and solution-irrelevant statements. The NHA group used significantly more statements showing useful goal directed cognitive mediations than the HA children. The results suggested that HA children may have deficits in self-control skills.Grateful acknowledgment is made to the two anonymous reviewers whose insightful comments were very helpful in producing the final form of this paper.     

Relations between hyperactive and aggressive behavior and peer relations at three elementary grade levels

Sociometrics and teacher ratings of hyperactivity and aggression were obtained on 390 boys in grades 1– 6 to explore the relative contributions of hyperactivity and aggression to children's social adjustment. Both hyperactivity and aggression were correlated with negative sociometric nominations at all grade levels; however, only hyperactivity showed consistent inverse correlations with positive sociometric nominations. In multiple regression analyses, hyperactivity contributed incremental variance to the prediction of problematic sociometric status at all grade levels, while aggression did so only at grades 3– 4. An examination of the core symptoms of hyperactivity revealed that motor hyperactivity, in the absence of impulsivity and inattention, did not predict negative sociometric status at any grade level. Subgroups of boys categorized as hyperactive only, aggressive only, hyperactive/aggressive, and nonhyperactive/nonaggressive controls were compared on teacher ratings and sociometrics. Hyperactive/aggressive boys had higher hyperactivity and aggression ratings than boys in either of the single- problem groups; all three behavior problem groups had more negative social status than controls. Developmental changes in children's normative expectations for social behavior were discussed as possible mechanisms mediating the age- related differences in relations among aggression, hyperactivity, and peer relations.This research is based on a dissertation submitted by the first author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology at The Pennsylvania State University. The investigation was supported in part by an NIMH postdoctoral training grant No. MH-15151 made to the first author during a fellowship in the Division of Behavioral Pediatrics of Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and a Faculty Scholars in Mental Health of Children award made by The William T. Grant Foundation to the second author.Appreciation is expressed to the fellowing individuals for their assistance in data collecting and scoring: Rosanna D'Alession, John D'Orazio, Chris Doran, Linda Goldstein, Joel Kasper, Lisa Kovacs, Heidi Linz, Kathryn McPherson, Grant Miller, Sue Skalaban, Helene Streitfield. The additional organizational and administrative assistance of Linda Goldstein and Kathryn McPherson is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we are especially thankful for the cooperation and support of the faculty and students at Linntown Elementary School in the Lewisburg Area School District, the Bellwood-Antis Elementary Schools in the Bellwood-Antis School District, and Lincoln Elementary School in the Tyrone Area School District.     

Attention styles and peer relationships of hyperactive and normal boys and girls

Attention skills of hyperactive and normal boys and girls and behavioral ratings by teachers were investigated. Peer perceptions were obtained using a sociometric measure. Results supported previous research that found attentional deficits in hyperactive children. Results also suggested that hyperactive girls, as well as hyperactive boys, have difficulty with peer relationships. Hyperactive boys and girls displayed different patterns of problem behavior, although both groups displayed more problems than normal boys and girls. Specifically, the hyperactive girls displayed more conduct problem behavior than normal girls, but less than hyperactive boys. Because of the disruptive behavior problems they present, hyperactive boys may be identified earlier than are hyperactive girls.Portions of this paper were presented at the 56th annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, 1984. Thanks are expressed to the students and teachers of the Eastwood Local Schools who took part in the study.The author wishes to thank the Department of Psychology and the Faculty Research Committee at Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, for their support of this study.     

Effects of experimenter and mother presence on the attentional performance and activity of hyperactive boys

The attentional performance, activity, and off-task behavior of hyperactive boys with and without conduct problems and normal boys were compared on a cancellation task under three conditions: when performing the task alone, with mother present, and with experimenter present. Results indicated that both the hyperactive groups achieved poorer attentional scores than normal subjects in the alone and mother present conditions, but improved in the experimenter present condition. The performance of the hyperactive boys with conduct problems was particularly affected by this condition. The activity and off-task behavior scores of both the hyperactive groups were higher than controls in all conditions, although the hyperactive boys with conduct problems decreased in off-task behavior when the experimenter was present. Attention and behavior scores were not significantly correlated. The implications of these findings for assessment of hyperactivity, and the role of noncompliance in the attentional behavior of hyperactive children, are discussed.This study is based in part on the first author's Ph.D. thesis in the Department of Psychology, University of Melbourne.     

Relationship among environmental and demographic variables and teacher-rated hyperactivity

This study assessed the role of environmental and demographic factors in the occurrence of teacher-rated hyperactivity. The subject group consisted of 79 hyperactive and 81 nonhyperactive children ranging from 5 to 12 years of age. Parents of the subjects were interviewed to obtain information regarding the environmental and demographic factors of sex, race, birth order, number of siblings, frequency of change of residence, income level, mother's age, father's age, educational level of mother, educational level of father, parents' marital status, and the method of child discipline used in the home. Comparison between the hyperactive and nonhyperactive groups suggested nonsignificant differences with the exception of sex (p<.001), in which the ratio of hyperactive males to hyperactive females was 51.The authors are grateful to Dr. Bruce Dunn for his critical suggestions.     

Auditory attention switching in hyperactive children

The ability to rapidly reorient attention in the auditory modality was studied in hyperactive children. Hyperactive and nonhyperactive subjects matched on age, sex, and IQ listened to dichotically presented lists for prespecified targets. Reorientation was studied by comparing performance on trials requiring subjects to reorient their attention during a list to performance on trials requiring no switching of attention. The results indicate that although nonhyperactive children were temporarily disrupted by the switch, they eventually reoriented to the cued ear. In contrast, once hyperactive children were disrupted by the switch, they did not reorient to the cued ear. As the pattern in performance comparing hyperactive and nonhyperactive subjects resembles the pattern previously found in comparing younger and older subjects, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that the auditory reorientation skills of hyperactive children are developmentally immature.     

Effortful processing deficits in children with reading and/or attention disorders

Three groups of educationally troublesome boys were contrasted with adequate students on several tasks tapping effortful processing. The nonhyperactive reading disabled (RD) group differed both from controls and two attention deficit disorder (ADD) groups, one with and one without hyperactivity (H), on aspects of a memory task involving acoustic and semantic associations. All three clinical groups differed from controls in memory for low-imagery as opposed to high-imagery words and in computational efficiency. A stepwise regression analysis to predict reading grade level showed age and WISC-R IQ to account for 38% of the variance with an additional 28% explained by the effortful task variables (multiple R = .83). It is theorized here that attentional disorder impedes automatization of number facts; and, inasmuch as RD children receive adverse attention ratings, even if not considered hyperactive, they, as well as ADD and H/ADD boys, exhibit this deficiency.     

Peer popularity and peer communication patterns: Hyperactive versus active but normal boys

Classroom peer perceptions of 18 teacher-nominated hyperactive and 18 teacher-nominated active but normal elementary school-age boys, as revealed in two sociometric measures (Bower's Class Play, like-dislike nomination), were compared. Results indicated that hyperactives were significantly different from actives on all sociometric measures in that they were perceived more negatively. Peer communication patterns also were assessed. The communicative content, communicative quality, and attention to task instructions of hyperactive boys were compared to those of comparison boys. Limited support was found for the earlier finding that hyperactive boys were less likely than comparison boys to modulate behavior in response to changing external cues and to respond to subtle social learning opportunities. The communication task was found to be highly engaging for both groups of boys, and results suggest that hyperactive children may not lack the interpersonal skills necessary for referential communication, although they may be unable to use them consistently in all settings. The need to continue the study of peer relations of hyperactive children in naturalistic settings is stressed.     

Production deficiencies in free recall: A comparison of hyperactive,learning-disabled,and normal children

Free recall of weakly categorizable words was compared in hyperactive (ADDH), reading-disabled, and normal boys. During a baseline trial, hyperactive boys recalled fewer words and showed less category organization than both reading-disabled and normal boys. Following a manipulation designed to encourage semantic encoding of words, hyperactive boys showed an immediate improvement in item recall and organization so that their free-recall performance was similar to that of reading-disabled and normal children. During later trials of a multiple-trial format, hyperactive boys recalled fewer words than did the reading-disabled and normal boys, despite maintaining equality in category organization. Rather than lacking the skill to use semantic organization as a strategy in free recall, hyperactive boys had difficulty in spontaneously generating the organizational strategy in response to instructions to remember and sustaining sufficient effort to task completion.     

Effects of color stimulation and information on the copying performance of attention-problem adolescents

The optimal stimulation theory proposes that hyperactive children are less tolerant of lower levels of arousal than nonhyperactive children and should thus derive greater gains from stimulation added to repetitive copying tasks than do comparisons. To test this hypothesis, 16 adolescents, rating high on attention and behavior problems, were matched on the basis of age and poor handwriting performance to 16 controls. Matched pairs were randomly assigned to treatment order (high-stimulation colored letters followed in 2 weeks by low-stimulation black letters or the reverse order) and to level of information (color added to difficult letter parts or added to randomly selected letters), counterbalanced for treatment order and level of information within each order. Errors and activity were subjected to a mixed-design analysis of covariance, with IQ the covariate. The major findings indicated that attention-problem adolescents performed better with high-stimulation task stimuli than with low, relative to the opposite performance pattern of controls. Different responding was significant for experimental but not for control children.This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH32282 to the first author.     

Young adult outcome of children with "situational" hyperactivity: a prospective,controlled follow-up study

To examine the importance of symptom pervasiveness in ADHD, we conducted a prospective, 12-year follow-up study of boys (ages 6–12) considered hyperactive at school and home (Pervasive ADHD), boys considered hyperactive by teachers but not parents (School Only ADHD), boys considered hyperactive by parents but not teachers (Home Only ADHD), and nonhyperactive comparisons. Follow-up was completed on 82–94% participants. Clinicians interviewed participants and their parents, blind to childhood status. At follow-up, antisocial disorder was significantly more prevalent among Pervasive and School Only ADHD (29% for both) than Home Only ADHD (0%) and comparisons (8%). In a similar manner, severity of behavioral problems distinguished groups (Pervasive, School > Home, comparisons), as did educational attainment and academic performance (poorest for Pervasive and School). These findings stress the validity of teacher reports in the diagnosis of ADHD.     

Preschool peer perceptions of the behavior of hyperactive and aggressive children

To assess if preschool children can successfully identify externalizing symptomatic behaviors in their male classmates, and if these perceptions are associated with peer-rated popularity and rejection, 154 preschool boys and girls were interviewed using a peer nomination procedure. Behavioral data on the same preschool boys (N=86) were also provided by their respective teachers. Preschool children were capable of providing stable nominations of popularity, rejection, and aggression, boys and girls significantly agreed in their nominations, and these nominations were not a function of the age of the rated child, although they differed somewhat as a function of the age of the rater. Teachers and peers reflected significant convergence in ratings of hyperactivity and aggression and teacher ratings of peer problems significantly agreed with actual peer nominations of popularity and rejection. Boys nominated as aggressive were more rejected by their classmates, whereas boys nominated as hyperactive were either more popular and /or more rejected. Limited evidence for differential patterns of relationships among hyperactivity, aggression, and peer status was obtained for both the peer and teacher data.Portions of this paper were presented as part of a symposium, W. Pelham (Chair),Peer relations in hyperactive children: Diagnostic, symptomatic, and treatment consideration, at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, August 1981. This research was supported, in part, by NIMH grant #32992 to the first author.     

Prosocial behavior in hyperactive boys: Effects of stimulant medication and comparison with normal boys

To clarify the effects of stimulant medication on hyperactive (ADHD) children's prosocial as well as aversive behaviors toward peers, 19 hyperactive boys, aged 7–12, were observed as they acted as leaders for groups of 2–4 unfamiliar younger children. In a doubleblind crossover design, subjects were observed twice, once on placebo and again on a moderate (0.6 mg/kg) dose of methylphenidate (Ritalin). Thirteen comparison boys, without problems in attention and behavior, were also observed in the same leader roles. Relative to comparison boys, hyperactive boys on placebo were more socially engaged, used more aversive leadership techniques, and were rated as less likable by the younger children in their groups. Aversive social behaviors were the strongest predictors of being disliked by the younger children. No differences were found between comparison and unmedicated hyperactive boys for any aspect of prosocial behavior. Stimulant medication had a general dampening effect on social behavior, significantly reducing social engagement and increasing (mild) dysphoria relative to the placebo condition. The implications of these findings for understanding and treating the peer relationship difficulties of hyperactive children are discussed.This study was conducted at the Fernald Child Study Center, UCLA, and we very much appreciate the contributions of the many staff members of the program, especially those of Alice Huber-Dressler and Tracy Heller. We also are very grateful to staff and children of Corinne A. Seeds University Elementary School for their participation in this study.     

Perception of parents'' behavior, familial satisfaction, and sense of coherence in hyperactive children

The aim of the study was to compare the perceptions of hyperactive children with those of a nonhyperactive matched control group on the following dependent variables: (a) sense of coherence, (b) life satisfaction, and (c) perceptions of parental roles. Eighty-four children divided into two equal groups (27 boys and 15 girls in each group) were studied, by means of a short form of the Cornell Parent Behavior Inventory (PBI), the Sense of Coherence Scale, and a global measure of the Life Satisfaction Scale. The teachers rated each child on the Conners Abbreviated Symptom Questionnaire (ASQ), the Aggressive Behavior Scale, and a global evaluation of academic status. The data were analyzesd by multivariate analysis of variance, step-wise multiple regression, and Pearson correlation. The hyperactive children demontrated lower levels of sense of coherence: their environment seemed to them to be less ordered, to less manageable, and to bear less meaning. Study of the pereption of familial interactions highlighted the significance of the father's role for life satisfaction of the hyperactive children, and supportive behavior was perceived as contributing more than disciplinary acts to life satisfaction.     

Performance of disturbed hyperactive and nonhyperactive children on an objective measure of hyperactivity

Twenty hyperactive emotionally disturbed children (6–11 years) and a matched sample of nonhyperactive emotionally disturbed children were selected from the population of a therapeutic day treatment facility on the basis of teacher ratings. They were administered the Matching Familiar Figures Test-20 and were rated on several scales of impulsivity and/or hyperactivity. Each subject was required to perform on the Delay Task of the Gordon Diagnostic System, which required them to inhibit behavioral responding on a temporally based schedule (DRL-6) in order to win points. Children classified as hyperactive, whether by one or more criteria, were relatively unable to refrain from emitting a high number of nonreinforced responses. Moreover, these performance differences persisted regardless of age or IQ and were stable over the 8 minutes required to complete the test.The authors gratefully acknowledge the efforts of the following members of the Institute of Clinical Psychology, University of Virginia: Richard Abidin, Ann Loper, Ronald Reeve, and Sherry Kraft. Data analyses were conducted using STATMANAGER, Hayden Software Company, copyright 1983.     

Hyperactive children and peer interaction: Knowledge and performance of social skills

This study investigated hyperactive children's peer relations using the framework of social skills theory. Subjects' (15 hyperactive and 15 control boys aged 7 through 11) knowledge of socially appropriate behavior was assessed using the Social Knowledge Interview (Geraci & Asher, 1980). Additionally, performance of social skills with peers was rated by independent judges during free play, a cooperative puzzle task, and a persuasion task. Peers also rated subjects'desirability as partners for work, play, and friendship. Analyses showed that hyperactive subjects had deficits in knowledge of how to maintain relationships and handle interpersonal conflict, and demonstrated more negative behavior in the cooperative puzzle task than did controls. Hyperactive subjects also were rated by judges as less likely to achieve academic success than controls and were rated by peers as less desirable potential work partners in school. Significant correlations between social knowledge and performance with peers were found. It was concluded that hyperactive boys exhibit deficits both in their social knowledge and in their performance of socially skilled behavior.This research was conducted as part of doctoral research by the first author, under the supervision of the second and third authors. We are grateful for the assistance of Diane Arnkoff, who served on the committee, for her helpful comments and suggestions. Thanks also go to Al Farrell for his statistical consultation. We gratefully acknowledge the support and assistance of the Georgetown University Child Development Center, where the data were collected.