Illustrating a Hierarchical Approach for Selecting Personality Traits in Personnel Decisions: An Application of the 3M Model

Recent research indicates that managers are not aware of the latest developments in theory regarding the use of personality inventories in personnel selection decisions. This article presents a systematic approach to selecting traits for use in personnel selection that is based on recent developments in hierarchical personality models. Results from a study of real estate sales associates indicate that the new approach does have much to offer the area. Results are discussed along with managerial implications.     

EXPANDING THE CONTEXT OF UTILITY: THE STRATEGIC IMPACT OF PERSONNEL SELECTION

Others have demonstrated that traditional applications of the Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser (BCG) selection utility formula are deficient in responding to the financial context of managerial decisions (Boudreau, 1983a, 1983b; Cronshaw & Alexander, 1985, 1991). We demonstrate that traditional estimates of selection utility also fail to reflect the strategic context faced by managerial decision makers. We modify the traditional BCG model to yield an estimate of total utility derived from human resources ( U_total ) that can be directly compared to firms' strategic need at a particular point in time ( U^target )-Further, we demonstrate that, while strategic need is rarely constant over time, the capacity of a selection system to meet that need is also likely to change as r_xy and SD_y change over time. Re-examination of what is important to strategic human resource decision makers (selection utility vs. total utility and strategic need) and changing selection system contributions over time yields a more realistic view of how firms benefit from personnel selection.     

ACHIEVEMENT, POWER AND MANAGERIAL MOTIVATION: SELECTING MANAGERIAL TALENT WITH THE JOB CHOICE EXERCISE

Relying on McClelland's theory of need for Achievement ( n Ach) and need for Power ( n Pow) this paper hypothesizes that high managerial motivation consists of both high n Ach and high n Pow, and that low managerial motivation consists of both low n Ach and low n Pow. Using the Job Choice Exercise, which is a decision modeling approach to the measurement of n Ach and n Pow, 172 respondents from several different samples were investigated to test these hypotheses. Those who scored high in managerial motivation had higher managerial performance than others, had a higher managerial promotion rate than others, were more likely to be campus leaders than others, or were more likely to be managers than blue collar workers. The opposite was found for low managerial motivation except for managerial performance where there was insufficient data. No difference between the sexes or between the races was found on either the high or the low managerial motivation measure in a nationwide sample of 1,417. Based on these results, the managerial selection implications and early identification of managerial talent implications are discussed.     

THE FUTILITY OF UTILITY ANALYSIS

In a study involving 143 experienced managers, utility analysis was found to influence managerial decision making, but not in the way intended by advocates of this technique. Utility analysis reduced the support of managers for implementing a valid selection procedure, even though the analysis indicated that the net benefits from the new procedure were substantial. In light of these findings, industrial/organizational psychologists are advised to reconsider their assumptions regarding the information managers use when managers make human resource policy decisions.     

MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING ABOUT EMPLOYEE DISCIPLINE: A POLICY-CAPTURING APPROACH

This study examined how personnel managers ( n = 19) and line managers ( n = 28) make disciplinary decisions. Using a policy-capturing approach, subjects were asked to respond to disciplinary incidents that varied in terms of three factors likely to affect managerial attributions about the cause of the disciplinary problem (managerial provocation, personal problems, or tenure). The incidents also varied in terms of factors made relevant by the economic, institutional/legal, and hierarchical contexts. Of the six variables manipulated, the factor relating to the institutional/legal context had the largest impact on the decisions made by the personnel managers, and the factor relating to the hierarchical context had the largest impact on the decisions made by the line managers. While provocation was relatively important for both line and personnel managers, personal problems, tenure, and the economic implications of the decision had more modest impacts on managerial decisions. The results also suggest that there is substantial variation across managers in terms of the decision rules employed when responding to disciplinary cases.     

管理胜任力特征分析:结构方程模型检验

管理胜任力特征分析是人事选拔与评价的重要内容之一。本研究在运用基于胜任力的职位分析并总结国内外有关文献的基础上,编制了管理综合素质评价量表,并运用此量表调查了220名中高层管理者,采用因素分析和结构方程模型检验企业高级管理者胜任力特征的结构。结果表明,管理胜任力特征结构由管理素质和管理技能等两个维度构成,但在维度要素及其关键度上,职位层次间存在显著差异。本研究为管理职位的测评选拔提供了新的理论依据。     

THE FUTILITY OF UTILITY ANALYSIS REVISITED: WHEN EVEN AN EXPERT FAILS

The effect of utility analysis on managerial decisions regarding the use of a valid selection test was investigated. Experienced managers ( n = 41) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. The control condition contained written advice to adopt new selection procedures from a hypothetical psychologist that included an explanation of validation procedures. The second condition contained the same written information and advice as the control condition plus written support of that advice from a hypothetical trusted adviser. The third condition contained all the material that was presented in the control condition plus a written explanation of utility analysis, an actual utility analysis showing that large financial benefits would flow from using the proposed procedures, and a video-taped presentation from an expert on utility analysis where the logic underlying utility analysis and its benefits were explained. The expert was then presented live to the audience to address any questions that might have arisen from the utility analysis or the video. An ANOVA revealed that the presentation of a positive utility analysis reduced support for implementing a valid selection procedure, even though the logic and merits of utility analysis as a decision-making tool were described by an internationally recognized authority.     

Content validity: A neglected strategy for developing managerial selection tests?

There is a lack of quick, valid, and cost effective methods for selection of low-and mid-level managerial personnel. Using content-valid methods to develop managerial selection instruments may reap substantial benefits for applicants as well as for the organizations using such tools. To this end, based upon extensive job analysis, a content-valid managerial selection test was developed. Criterion-based validity collected on the new instrument suggested that an instrument developed using content-valid procedures can also show acceptable levels of criterion validity.     

Content validity: A neglected strategy for developing managerial selection tests?

There is a lack of quick, valid, and cost effective methods for selection of low-and mid-level managerial personnel. Using content-valid methods to develop managerial selection instruments may reap substantial benefits for applicants as well as for the organizations using such tools. To this end, based upon extensive job analysis, a content-valid managerial selection test was developed. Criterion-based validity collected on the new instrument suggested that an instrument developed using content-valid procedures can also show acceptable levels of criterion validity.     

SEX ROLE STEREOTYPING,ABILITY AND PERFORMANCE: PRIOR RESEARCH AND NEW DIRECTIONS1

Although there is a reasonable body of research pointing up the negative impact of sex role stereotypical thinking on selection decisions, limited attention has been paid to the impact of such thinking on the perceived and actual performance of women in management. Among the suggested new research avenues are the ways in which sex role stereotypical thinking impacts on organizational factors, such as through differential placement, tokenism and supervisory bias, so as to impair on-the-job performance. Furthermore, it is argued that the relationship between power and political behavior and effective managerial performance needs examination, with particular emphasis on the way in which sex role stereotypical thinking may limit a woman manager's opportunity to acquire or utilize work-related power acquisition behaviors.     

Assessing personality at risk in personnel selection and development

This paper demonstrates the validity and usefulness of a count technique to screen for potential personality dysfunctioning in NEO‐PI‐R ratings obtained in selection and professional development assessments. The usefulness of this screening technique for Industrial, Work and Organizational (IWO) psychologists is demonstrated in five different samples that were administered the NEO‐PI‐R for selection or development purposes. Three additional samples served as normative data to compute FFM PD count cut‐offs that can be used for selection and career development decisions. Evidence for the construct validity of 6 out of 10 FFM PD counts was provided, and all FFM PD compound scales were significantly related to important criteria, including the final selection decision, the results of a behaviourally oriented selection interview and self‐rated work competencies. The practical utility and limitations of this count technique for personnel selection and development are discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

“The Smarts That Counts?”: Psychologists' Decision-Making in Personnel Selection

An exploratory approach was taken to examine personnel psychologists' use of sources of information when making a decision regarding candidates' fit to managerial positions. The main focus was on the process, based on actual information used to make real-life decisions about real-life candidates. Different types of information, available to the psychologists were used to predict their actual final decision regarding a sample of 434 managerial candidates. Results suggest a preference to indices of cognitive skills in making decisions about candidates. It seems that even when other non-cognitive indices were used, they were tainted by the cognitive indices, suggesting a halo effect. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.     

Subtle gender bias in the assessment of managerial potential

The effects of gender on evaluations of managerial potential within a corporate assessment center program were investigated. The sample consisted of 375 men and 61 women (94% White, 3% Black, 2.3% Asian, and .7% Hispanic) assessed between 1980 and 1985. Candidates were assessed on their intellectual ability, performance and interpersonal skills, and overall management potential. Women were rated higher than men on the performance-style skills; however, there were no differences in overall management potential ratings or in actual long-term job advancement. The results suggest that subtle gender bias affects evaluations of managerial potential and subsequent promotion decisions.     

Employee self-enhancement motives and job performance behaviors: investigating the moderating effects of employee role ambiguity and managerial perceptions of employee commitment

This study examined the effects of employee self-enhancement motives on job performance behaviors (organizational citizenship behaviors and task performance) and the value of these behaviors to them. The authors propose that employees display job performance behaviors in part to enhance their self-image, especially when their role is not clearly defined. They further argue that the effects of these behaviors on managerial reward recommendation decisions should be stronger when managers believe the employees to be more committed. The results from a sample of 84 working students indicate that role ambiguity moderated the effects of self-enhancement motives on job performance behaviors and that managerial perceptions of an employee's commitment moderated the effects of those organizational citizenship behaviors that are aimed at other individuals on managers' reward allocation decisions.     

内隐绩效模型对管理决策的影响作用研究

本文在以往绩效模型和内隐绩效模型的研究基础上,运用实验模拟方法,研究了内隐绩效模型对管理决策的影响作用,结果发现：在不同决策任务条件下,内隐绩效模型存在显著差异．并随着决策任务变化而变化;内隐绩效模型影响决策者的决策偏差,周边绩效一定程度上对任务绩效起补偿作用。     

MOTIVATION TO MANAGE AT THE TOP EXECUTIVE LEVEL: A TEST OF THE HIERARCHIC ROLE-MOTIVATION THEORY

Measures of managerial motivation (the Miner Sentence Completion Scale - Form H) were obtained from a sample composed of 75 chief executive and operating officers, executive vice presidents, and group vice presidents. Within this sample, 49 individuals had clearly worked their way up a bureaucratic hierarchy, and thus were congruent with managerial role motivation theory, while 26 were either the original entrepreneur or relatives of the entrepreneur. Comparisons were made with a sample of 65 managers in the same companies who, although of similar ages, had not reached the same high levels. The theory congruent top executives proved to have higher managerial motivation than either of the other two groups. These results support the hierarchic role-motivation theory and reinforce one of its most central propositions; they also support the use of the MSCS-Form H in the selection of managerial talent and in executive assessment.     

SELF-ASSESSED TRAINING NEEDS: THE EFFECTS OF ATTITUDES TOWARD TRAINING, MANAGERIAL LEVEL, AND FUNCTION

Self-assessment research has concentrated on validity and psychometric issues in selection and appraisal contexts. Little is known about factors that affect self-assessment of training needs. The present study examines the influence of managerial position (level, function) and managerial attitudes toward training utility on self-reported training needs. A training-needs survey consisting of items related to basic managerial, interpersonal, administrative, and quality control skills was completed by 506 lower and middle level managers across four functional areas. Correlational and regression analyses indicated that managerial level and function had some effect on reported administrative training needs, while function and attitudes towards training utility had some impact on self-reported training needs for quality control. Level, function, and attitude were not related to reported basic managerial and interpersonal training needs. The implications and limitations of the results are discussed, and future research directions are presented.     

Motivation to manage among women: Studies of college students

Studies were conducted with samples of students from four different universities to determine if male-female differences in motivation to manage existed. Although differences were not found among students majoring in the field of education, females in business administration and the liberal arts did prove to have lower managerial motivation scores than the comparable male samples. These findings are discussed in terms of their relationships to sex discrimination, prospective managerial talent shortages and the vocational guidance of female college students.     

Mental budgeting versus marginal decision making: training,experience and justification effects on decisions involving sunk costs

Many studies have shown that individuals make economically irrational decisions by using, rather than ignoring, sunk cost information. In this study, the effects of relevant academic training, financial experience and decision justification on investment decisions involving sunk costs were examined. Data on both the process (strategy) and outcome of the decisions were collected. The results indicate that practicing Certified Public Accountants (CPAs), Masters of Business Administration students (MBAs) and undergraduate accounting students perform better than undergraduate psychology students. The level of training, as measured by the number of college courses in managerial accounting, was found to be positively correlated with performance, while the level of experience, as measured by years of financially‐related work, was not. Justification was found to improve decisions only for those participants with significant work experience (MBAs and CPAs). Strategies used in this type of decision were examined with the surprising finding that economically rational decisions can be made even if sunk costs are not ignored. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The moment of truth: Conceptualizing managerial work‐life policy allowance decisions

Organizational efforts of adopting, designing, and implementing work‐family policies converge into single, discretionary decisions of supervisors whether or not to ‘allow’ these policies to specific employees under their supervision. These decisions are referred to as allowance decisions. In order to close a theoretical gap in current work‐family literature, we present an integrated, conceptual model of managerial allowance decisions. We develop propositions regarding factors that influence a supervisor's allowance decision at three different levels of analysis and behavioural outcomes in employees. Building on organizational justice theory, moderating effects of employees' fairness perceptions of allowance decisions are discussed. Finally, we outline implications for future research and recommendations for managers in organizations.