An exploration of the attitudinal and perceptual dimensions of body image among male and female adolescents from six Latin American cities

Using survey methodology, this exploratory study examined the attitudinal and perceptual dimensions of body image among 1,272 eighth- and ninth-grade males and females from higher and lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Buenos Aires, Argentina (n = 195), Guatemala City, Guatemala (n = 212), Havana, Cuba (n = 213), Lima, Peru (n = 218), Panama City, Panama (n = 195), and Santiago, Chile (n = 239). The two dimensions of body image were assessed by showing the participants nine male and nine female silhouettes depicting body sizes ranging from extremely thin (#1) to extremely obese (#9). Approximately 50% of the male and female adolescents chose silhouette #3 as best depicting the attractive male body. Silhouette #2 was chosen by 45% of the females as best depicting feminine attractiveness, while 45% of the males chose silhouette #3. When identifying the silhouette that best depicted the healthy male body, 26% of the participants chose silhouette #2, 41% chose #3, and 19% chose #4. Silhouette #2 was selected by 33% of the adolescents as best depicting the healthy female body, 38% chose #3, and 14% chose #4. In all cities, the effect of body mass index (BMI) on body satisfaction was highly significant (p < 0.001). Almost 40% of the middle weight adolescents indicated a preference to be thinner, even though 72% of the males and 84% of the females in this subgroup already perceived themselves as thin. Similarly, 89% of the heavier weight participants indicated a preference to be thinner, even though only 10% of the males and 2% of the females in this subgroup perceived themselves as heavy. In five of the six cities, a significantly higher (p < 0.05) percentage of females than males desired to be thinner, the exception being Havana, where the distribution of desired change in body size was almost identical for males and females. Findings suggest a need for culturally sensitive, age- and gender-specific preventive interventions focusing on the importance of achieving a healthy weight during adolescence to promote body size acceptance among adolescents who are at a healthy weight.     

Females excel at basic face perception

Females are generally better than males at recognizing facial emotions. However, it is not entirely clear whether and in what way females may also excel at non-affective face recognition. Here, we tested males and females on two perceptual face recognition tasks that involved only neutral expressions: detection and identity discrimination. On face detection (Experiment 1), females were significantly more accurate than males in detecting upright faces. This gender difference was reduced during inverted face detection, and not present during tree detection, suggesting that the magnitude of the gender difference for performance co-varies with the extent to which face processing mechanisms are involved. On facial identity discrimination (Experiment 2), females again outperformed males, particularly when face images were masked by visual noise, or the delay between comparison face images was extended from 0.5 to 3 s. These results reveal a female advantage in processing face-specific information and underscore the role of perceptual factors in socially relevant gender differences.     

Size does matter: Women mentally rotate large objects faster than men

Performance in a computerized “mental rotation” task was measured in groups of males and females while they rotated Shepard‐Metzler‐like cube assemblies on either a standard laptop screen (size = 36 cm) or on a large display wall (584 cm) where the stimuli appeared at considerably larger sizes and within a much wider field of view than that typically used in most spatial tasks. Males and females did not differ significantly in performance in the standard size condition with regards to response time but females performed faster than males in the large display condition. Males were also found to be significantly more accurate than females, regardless of display. We found no sign of trading accuracy for speed for either of the sexes or screen size conditions. We surmise that such an effect may be due to differences in task‐solving strategies between the sexes, where a holistic strategy – which may be preferred by males is negatively affected by large object sizes, whereas a piecemeal approach, that may be preferred by females, is virtually unaffected by display size.     

Interaction of sex-related psychological characteristics and psychoneuroendocrine stress responses

Sex-related psychological characteristics of male and female engineering students were examined and correlated with measures of sympathetic-adrenal medullary hormones. Self-ratings showed that both males and females perceived themselves as equally high in characteristics generally viewed as masculine and feminine. Retrospective reports of play activities in childhood reflected the traditional sex-role patterns, whereas ratings of adult interests, hobbies, and job preferences showed that the two gender groups had moved in a more androgynous direction, with the increase in females' cross-sex interests being greater than that of males. The intellectual performance profiles showed the well-documented sex difference, with males excelling in visuospatial abilities and females in verabl abilities and perceptual speed. Correlations between measures of intellectual performance and catecholamine excretion were mainly positive in the male group and negative in the female group, which is consistent with findings from previous studies.     

表达抑制调节负性情绪的男性优势——来自事件相关电位的证据

生活经验和文献证明,男性相比女性有更少的情绪表达行为。据此,本研究假设表达抑制进行负性情绪调节具有男性优势,而采用认知重评调节时可能没有该性别差异。在不同的实验阶段,被试分别采用自由观看、表达抑制和认知重评策略观看负性情绪图片,同时记录事件相关电位(ERP),以及使用各种策略之后的主观情绪体验。结果表明,采用表达抑制和认知重评调节情绪后,被试报告的负性情绪体验没有出现男女差异。然而,对ERP晚期正电位(Late Positive Potential,LPP)的统计分析发现,LPP的中期(2000~3000 ms)与晚期(3000~4000 ms)波幅均出现了调控策略与性别的交互作用。对男性而言,负性图片诱发的LPP波幅(2000~4000 ms)在表达抑制条件下相比自由观看条件出现显著降低,但女性没有出现上述效应。此外,在LPP各个时间窗口,采用认知重评策略进行情绪调节时均无显著性别差异。上述结果表明采用表达抑制策略进行负面情绪调节时,男性具有相比女性更好的调控效果。这提示男性比女性更适合采用抑制情绪表达的方式进行日常情绪管理。这种性别优势可能来源于社会对男女性性别角色的不同期望。     

Item response theory analyses of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System card sorting subtest

In the current study, we examined the dimensionality of the 16-item Card Sorting subtest of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Functioning System assessment in a sample of 264 native English-speaking children between the ages of 9 and 15 years. We also tested for measurement invariance for these items across age and gender groups using item response theory (IRT). Results of the exploratory factor analysis indicated that a two-factor model that distinguished between verbal and perceptual items provided the best fit to the data. Although the items demonstrated measurement invariance across age groups, measurement invariance was violated for gender groups, with two items demonstrating differential item functioning for males and females. Multigroup analysis using all 16 items indicated that the items were more effective for individuals whose IRT scale scores were relatively high. A single-group explanatory IRT model using 14 non-differential item functioning items showed that for perceptual ability, females scored higher than males and that scores increased with age for both males and females; for verbal ability, the observed increase in scores across age differed for males and females. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Influence tactics as a function of gender,insult, and goal

A laboratory procedure evaluated three theoretical frameworks commonly used to explain gender differences in influence behaviors: the intrapersonal, which predicted main effects for gender; social context, which predicted main effects for situational variables; and sex stratification, an extension of expectation states theory, which predicted gender by situation interactions. Results supported the latter theory, indicating that goals (self-interest or altruism) and target behavior (insulting or not insulting) differentially affected women's and men's behavior. The relative use of reward, coercion, and request influence strategies was examined. Males and females increased their use of each strategy type differentially across trial blocks. Females used request and males used reward increasingly across trial blocks. Only males who were insulted showed an increase in coercion. Contrary to stereotypes, results suggest that males and females may hold similar preferences for strategies they use most to least often, but may switch their choices at different rates.The assistance of the UNCG Research Council and Statistical Consulting Center is acknowledged. Appreciation is expressed to Jacqueline Goodchilds and Barbara Wallston for comments on an earlier draft. This article is dedicated to the memory of Barbara Wallston, who believed in the importance of research on power and gender.     

领悟社会支持性别差异的元分析

研究采用元分析技术, 对采用Zimet“多维度领悟社会支持量表”调查中国人群领悟社会支持的58篇文献进行了元分析, 涉及样本总量为31286人(男性15279), 调查的时间跨度为2002~2014年。研究结果显示:(1)领悟社会支持有显著的性别差异, 女性在领悟社会支持总分、家庭内(外)支持、朋友支持及重要他人支持的得分均显著高于男性, 效果量d的取值范围为[-0.266,-0.183];(2)大学生领悟社会支持总分和领悟家庭支持的性别差异显著大于中学生。本研究结果对于探明中国人群中领悟社会支持的性别差异及其发展趋势具有一定的理论意义。     

Effects of Anticipated Interaction,Sex, and Homosexual Stereotypes on First Impressions1

The effects of anticipated interaction on liking were examined, with the person being evaluated sometimes being presented as a member of a negatively stereotyped group. The stereotype studied was that associated with male homosexuals. The standard effect of anticipated interaction causing increased liking was obtained when females rated either a homosexual or a non- homosexual male and when males rated a nonhomosexual male. When males anticipated interacting with a homosexual male, however, they rated him less favorably than did males who did not anticipate interacting with him. It was also found that both males and females liked the stimulus person less and attributed stereotypic traits to him more when he was homosexual than when he was not. These latter effects were stronger for males than for females.     

DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF SEXUAL COMPOSITION AND INTERACTIONAL CONTEXT ON INTERACTION PATTERNS IN DYADS

Recent research into whether males and females differ in their communication has been confounded by several variables: perceptual measures, observing isolated behaviors, and same-sex or mixed-sex composition of the communicative system. Some research has suggested that the interactional context may affect whether males and females communicate differently at all. This study sought to determine the differential impact of sexual composition and one aspect of interactional context (specifically, competitive or cooperative orientation) on interaction patterns in same-sex and mixed-sex dyads. Results confirm the expectation that competitive/cooperative orientation exerts a significant impact on both content and relationship patterns of interaction. Results also demonstate that the sexual composition of the dyads did not affect the interaction patterns, measured on any of five dimensions of interactional functions, in competitive dyads, cooperative dyads, or all dyads taken together.     

Size perception is less context-sensitive in males

Context sensitivity of size perception has previously been used to study individual differences related to the distinction between local, analytic, or field-independent and global, holistic, or field-dependent perceptual styles. For example, it has been used in several recent studies of autistic spectrum disorders, which may involve an excessive bias toward local processing. Autism is much more common in males, and there is evidence that this may be in part because males in general tend to be less context-sensitive than females, and thus are more affected by conditions that further reduce context sensitivity. There is also evidence that a bias to local processing is more common in professions that require attention to detail. Context sensitivity of size perception was therefore studied as a function of sex and academic discipline in sixty-four university staff and students by a simple, sensitive, and specific psychophysical measure based on the Ebbinghaus illusion. The results show that in this task males are on average less context-sensitive than females, that the overlap is large, and that subjects with very high or very low context sensitivity tend to have the sex and profession predicted by the above hypotheses.     

Evaluating the contribution of different item features to the effect size of the gender difference in three-dimensional mental rotation using automatic item generation

In complex three-dimensional mental rotation tasks males have been reported to score up to one standard deviation higher than females. However, this effect size estimate could be compromised by the presence of gender bias at the item level, which calls the validity of purely quantitative performance comparisons into question. We hypothesized that the effect of gender bias at the level of distinct item design features could lead to either an over- or underestimation of reported effect sizes of the gender difference in three-dimensional mental rotation. Using automatic item generation we conducted a series of psychometric experiments in which we independently manipulated one out of four different item design features that have exhibited a gender bias in the previous studies (study 1). This was done in a between-subjects design. The results indicated that gender bias caused by item design features linked to the perceptual stadium of mental rotation led to an overestimation of the effect size of the gender difference while item design features associated with the encoding and transformational stadium resulted in an underestimation of the effect size of the gender difference. In study 2 we tested the hypothesis that the gender difference still remains while controlling for the item design features causing gender bias. The results suggest that a significant portion of the gender difference may be attributable to perceptual and encoding processes involved in mental rotation.     

Gender differences in remembering and inferring spatial distances

The abilities of males and females to make spatial inferences were compared. Spatial inference is concerned with the ability to work out new spatial information from memory. In two experiments, participants had to study line drawings depicting shapes linked either by straight or meandering lines. Afterwards, they had to remember the straight-line distances or to infer the straight-line distances. Several spatial abilities were also assessed: perceptual discrimination, mental rotation, and visuo-spatial working memory span. The results showed that males outperformed females in spatial inference and mental rotation. Experiment 2 extended the study to old people. The results replicated and clarified those obtained in Experiment 1. Spatial inference and mental rotation showed age-related and gender-related differences; in addition, age reduced the visuo-spatial memory span. Overall, the findings suggest that gender differences favouring males are maximised with tasks requiring active processing and strategic control of metric information.     

Gender differences in remembering and inferring spatial distances

The abilities of males and females to make spatial inferences were compared. Spatial inference is concerned with the ability to work out new spatial information from memory. In two experiments, participants had to study line drawings depicting shapes linked either by straight or meandering lines. Afterwards, they had to remember the straight-line distances or to infer the straight-line distances. Several spatial abilities were also assessed: perceptual discrimination, mental rotation, and visuo-spatial working memory span. The results showed that males outperformed females in spatial inference and mental rotation. Experiment 2 extended the study to old people. The results replicated and clarified those obtained in Experiment 1. Spatial inference and mental rotation showed age-related and gender-related differences; in addition, age reduced the visuo-spatial memory span. Overall, the findings suggest that gender differences favouring males are maximised with tasks requiring active processing and strategic control of metric information.     

面孔重复启动效应:知觉结构和语义表征的贡献

以30名大学生为被试,探讨了熟悉和陌生的正倒立面孔对重复启动效应的影响,以此考察知觉结构和语义表征对面孔重复启动的贡献.结果表明:(1)熟悉面孔的重复启动既存在知觉启动也存在语义启动,而不熟悉面孔仅仅存在知觉启动.(2)知觉结构和语义表征对启动效应的贡献是联合的,而不是分离的;在熟悉面孔中,语义表征对重复启动的贡献大于知觉结构的贡献.(3)知觉结构和语义表征对重复启动的贡献与加工阶段有关.知觉结构在初始阶段起作用,随后作用逐渐减弱;而语义表征存在于信息加工的整个过程.     

Sex differences in assertive achievement patterns

Observations in mathematics and social studies classrooms were made of 40 sixth-grade children of average and high ability to investigate whether males and females differ in assertive achievement behavior. The prediction of less assertive achievement behavior for females than males was supported only among average-ability children. Particularly in social studies, average-ability females participated less in the classroom than average-ability males and either high-ability males or females. Average-ability females' deficit of assertive behavior became more pronounced as the behavior category increased in degree of assertiveness. High-ability females demonstrated a deficit only in the most assertive behavior category.     

Partial mediation of strange-male-induced pregnancy blocks by sexual activity in mice (Mus musculus)

Novel male house mice (Mus musculus) can disrupt early pregnancy in females. Previous research focused on pheromonal rather than behavioral mediation of this phenomenon. In Experiment 1, novel males were housed with females shortly after insemination. Litter production was negatively correlated with the males' sexual activity. Experiment 2 replicated this finding with a larger sample. In Experiment 3, females were exposed to castrated males. Testosterone-treated males completely blocked pregnancy, whereas untreated males did not. In Experiment 4, castrated testosterone-treated males were presented at intervals after insemination. Pregnancy was totally blocked at Days 3 and 4 and mostly blocked at Days 1 and 2 but was less affected at Days 5 and 6. In Experiment 5, females were exposed through a wire-mesh grid to castrated males. Pregnancies occurred in all conditions, even with testosterone-treated males. These data suggest a role for sexual activity in male-induced pregnancy blocks.     

Nature and facts about natural and artifactual categories: Sex differences in the semantic priming paradigm

There is abundant evidence from behavioral and neurophysiological experiments for the distinction of natural versus artifactual categories and a gender-specific difference: women’s performances in cognitive tasks increase when natural categories are used, whereas men’s performances increase with artifactual categories. Here, we used the semantic priming paradigm to study retrieval processes by presenting category labels as primes and exemplars as targets. Overall, in two experiments we found larger priming effects for natural than for artifactual categories. In addition, females showed positive priming effects for natural but negative effects for artifactual categories, whereas males showed positive priming effects for both categories. This pattern matches with that from other tasks and can be interpreted as evidence that the findings from these other tasks are, at least partially, indeed due to different representations or processing modes for males and females and not (exclusively) due to—for example—different familiarity with a category. In a further experiment, we showed that the found pattern for females can be manipulated by focusing on perceptual vs. functional features. The results can be interpreted as first evidence that there are (eventually in addition to different “crystallized” semantic structures) specific default processing modes that differ for males and females.