External focus and autonomy support: Two important factors in motor learning have additive benefits

We examined whether the combination of two factors that have consistently been found to enhance motor learning – an external focus (EF) of attention and autonomy support (AS) – would produce additive benefits. Participants practiced throwing with their non-dominant arm. In a 2 × 2 design, they were or were not asked to focus externally (i.e., on the target), and were or were not given a choice (autonomy support). The latter involved choosing 2 5-trials blocks during practice on which they used their dominant arm. All four groups – EF/AS, EF, AS, and C (control) – completed a practice phase consisting of 60 trials. The distance to the target (bull’s eye) was 7.5 m. One day later, participants performed retention (same target distance) and transfer tests (8.5 m). Both external focus instructions and autonomy support enhanced retention and transfer performance. Importantly, the combination of these factors resulted in additive learning advantages. The EF/AS group showed the greatest throwing accuracy, and the EF and AS groups outperformed the C group. In addition, self-efficacy measured after practice and before retention and transfer was increased by both factors. Thus, promoting an external focus of attention and supporting learners’ need for autonomy seem to independently influence learning.     

Looking to happy tomorrows with friends: Best and close friendships as they predict happiness

Friendships are an important source of happiness. The present study (n = 280) investigated the role of friendship quality and conflict in happiness and examined the feature of friendship that best predicted happiness. Information was gathered about the quality and conflict of the best, first and second close friendships of the individual. Results revealed that best friendship quality was the only significant predictor of happiness; however, individuals were happier when they experienced high quality first close friendships in conjunction with a high quality best friendship. Results also revealed that first close friendship quality buffered the negative impact of first close friendship conflict. The companionship feature of the best and first close friendship appeared as the strongest predictor of happiness. Findings were discussed in light of the literature and suggestions for future research were made.     

The Rorschach mutuality of autonomy scale in the assessment of black father-absent male children

This study examined the utility of the Rorschach Mutuality of Autonomy Scale (MOA, Urist, 1977) in the assessment of two groups of 40 father-absent Black male children (aged 6 to 12 years): those whose fathers had left voluntarily versus those whose fathers had left involuntarily. Children who had experienced involuntary father-absence reflected less adaptive object-relations attainment status as measured by the MOA, t(38) = 2.37, p = > .02, when compared to children whose fathers had negotiated their departure. Although the Rorschach MOA can be a useful measure of assessing psychological functioning in Black father-absent male children, a multimethod assessment of object-relations status for ethnic minority children is proposed.     

The benefits of autonomy support for adolescents with severe emotional and behavioral problems

The benefits of autonomy support in the domain of education have been well established within the general population, but have yet to be demonstrated within clinical populations. The present study investigated the benefits of an autonomy-supportive interpersonal style on teenage girls’ internalization of a tedious clinical workshop and their subjective experience during this task. Participants were female teenagers placed in a social rehabilitation center for their severe emotional and behavioral problems (n = 29). An experimental design allowed comparing the impact of learning a tedious, but important workshop with or without autonomy support on internalization and experiential outcomes. Results demonstrate that autonomy support leads to higher perceived task’s value, task liking as well as less negative affect compared to a condition without autonomy-support. Participants in the autonomy-supportive condition also perceived the instructor as more competent. By uncovering benefits of autonomy support to a clinical population of adolescents, the present study supports self-determination theory’s tenet that the benefits of autonomy support are universal.     

External focus of attention and autonomy support have additive benefits for motor performance in children

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the combined effects of external focus instructions and autonomy support on motor performance of children. In addition, we sought to provide evidence for an increased focus on the task goal under the external focus condition by using an inattentional blindness manipulation.DesignWithin-participant design.MethodThirty-six children (mean age = 8.5 ± 1.3 years) were asked to perform a bowling task with their dominant hand. Each participant performed 8 trials under external focus (path of the ball), internal focus (hand), or control conditions. In each attentional focus condition, they performed half of the trials under a choice (autonomy support) condition, in which they were able to choose among 4 bowling balls, and a no-choice condition (white ball).ResultsThe external focus instruction resulted in greater bowling accuracy (i.e., more pins knocked down) than internal focus and no instructions (control). Furthermore, choice resulted in more effective performance than no choice. Thus, both factors had additive benefits for performance. There was some evidence for an increased task focus in the external condition.ConclusionsThe present results show that, within the same individuals, instructions to adopt an external focus and the provision of a small choice contributed independently to enhance motor performance in children.     

The development of the 2-Way Social Support Scale: a measure of giving and receiving emotional and instrumental support

A number of studies support the refinement of various types of social support into 2 primary dimensions: emotional support and instrumental support. There is increasing recognition of benefits aligned with giving as well as receiving social support, yet there has been no single measure published that incorporates all of these elements. This study presents the development of the 2-Way Social Support Scale (2-Way SSS) using community samples (n = 372; n = 417) and provides evidence for the scales' factor structure, reliability, and validity. The 2-Way SSS concurrently appraises 4 principal dimensions: (a) giving emotional support, (b) giving instrumental support, (c) receiving emotional support, and (d) receiving instrumental support. The completeness of the scale, combined with the generic quality of the items, enhances its utility across a diversity of contexts. Importantly, this scale provides a measurement tool that will enable the comparison of social support research outcomes across studies and populations.     

I'm outgoing and she's reserved: the reciprocal dynamics of personality in close friendships in young adulthood

Close college-age friendships provide differential opportunities for reinforcing dispositional tendencies and fostering accommodation or change. This finding was obtained from a cross-sectional study of 66 pairs of same-sex college-age friends (58% female). Each pair of friends was extreme and either very similar or different with regard to extraversion-introversion. Interviews with each friend were analyzed for references to each other's role in various friendship domains, including the setting of the friendship and position with regard to chatting, disclosing, expressing opinions about peers, and energizing the friendship. Matched friends mutually reinforced each other's similar dispositional tendencies. Friends with contrasting personalities showed patterns of personality accommodation as well as complementary reinforcement. Implications are discussed for embedding reciprocal theories of personality development in close friendships.     

Giving and receiving autonomy support in a high-stakes sport context: A field-based experiment during the 2012 London Paralympic Games

ObjectiveRecognizing that high-stakes competitions tend to pressure coaches toward a maladaptive controlling motivating style, we sought to evaluate the capacity of an intervention to help coaches adopt a more autonomy-supportive style as they and their athletes prepared for the 2012 London Paralympic Games.DesignWe adopted a coach-focused experimental research design that longitudinally assessed coaches' and athletes' self-report, rater-scored, and objective dependent measures.MethodWe randomly assigned 33 coaches and their 64 athletes from 10 sports into either an experimental or control group and assessed their motivation and functioning longitudinally.ResultsIn the control group, athletes and coaches both showed a significant longitudinal deterioration in all measures of motivation, engagement, and functioning. In the experimental group, none of the measures of motivation, engagement, and functioning deteriorated but, instead, were generally maintained. In terms of performance, athletes of coaches in the experimental group won significantly more Olympic medals than did athletes in the control group.ConclusionEnacting an autonomy-supportive coaching style within the context of a high-stakes sports competition functioned as an antidote to coaches' otherwise situationally-induced controlling style.     

Reexamining gender differences in same-gender friendships: A close look at two kinds of data

The present paper examines the widely accepted claim that women's and men's friendships can be characterized dichotomously as “expressive” vs. “instrumental,” or alternatively, as “communal” vs. “agentic.” After addressing questions about the empirical support for this claim, we present analyses based on two different kinds of data. Subjects providing these data were predominantly, although possibly not exclusively, Caucasian U.S. citizens. Study One analyzed the purposes of interaction endorsed by women and men in reports of actual meetings with same-sex friends. Women and men did not differ in the purposes reported, as both indicated meeting most often just to talk, less often to work on a task, and least often to deal with a relationship issue pertinent to the friendship. Study Two analyzed responses to a form assessing various aspects of the strength and quality of subjects' same-gender friendships. Although women and men differed on a number of variables, the differences did not form an expressive vs. instrumental dichotomy. We discuss an altered perspective on the differences and similarities in women's and men's friendships suggested by these results.     

Leader autonomy support in the workplace: A meta-analytic review

Leader autonomy support (LAS) refers to a cluster of supervisory behaviors that are theorized to facilitate self-determined motivation in employees, potentially enabling well-being and performance. We report the results of a meta-analysis of perceived LAS in work settings, drawing from a database of 754 correlations across 72 studies (83 unique samples, N?=?32,870). Results showed LAS correlated strongly and positively with autonomous work motivation, and was unrelated to controlled work motivation. Correlations became increasingly positive with the more internalized forms of work motivation described by self-determination theory. LAS was positively associated with basic needs, well-being, and positive work behaviors, and was negatively associated with distress. Correlations were not moderated by the source of LAS, country of the sample, publication status, or the operationalization of autonomy support. In addition, a meta-analytic path analysis supported motivational processes that underlie LAS and its consequences in workplaces. Overall, our findings lend support for autonomy support as a leadership approach that is consistent with self-determination and optimal functioning in work settings.     

Why identities fluctuate: variability in traits as a function of situational variations in autonomy support

ABSTRACT Interest in intra-individual variation in trait expression across situations, contexts, and relationships, and the meaning of this variation for personal functioning has grown significantly. In this article we review this literature with an emphasis on (a) appropriate methods for identifying variations in trait expression and (b) the substantive meaning and sources of this variation. Self-determination theory suggests that people will express traits differently as a function of the degree of support for autonomy they experience in any given setting. Accordingly, autonomy support is shown to predict variations in Big Five trait expression and other stable individual differences such as attachment security and dependency. The discussion focuses on methodological issues in the study of variability and on why autonomy support may play a central role in explaining trait variability and its relation to well-being.     

Interpersonal patterns in close relationships: The role of sociotropy–autonomy

Sociotropy and autonomy are conceptualized as two personality dimensions that relate to an individual's vulnerability to depression. Sociotropy is characterized as an excessive investment in interpersonal relationships and autonomy is characterized as an excessive concern with personal achievement and control over the environment. The present research project consisted of two studies examining the relationships between sociotropy–autonomy and interpersonal patterns in close relationships. Data collected via self‐report and behavioural observations suggested that highly sociotropic individuals have a tendency to be high in control and low in affiliation towards individuals who are close to them. In contrast, the data suggested that highly autonomous individuals may be low in both control and affiliation towards people who are close to them. These findings are discussed in the context of the literature regarding the interpersonal characteristics of sociotropic and autonomous individuals.     

Philanthropy,cosmopolitanism, and the benefits of giving directly

In the face of widespread poverty, Peter Singer argues that the best response is giving money to charitable organizations that give aid to the poor. In response, much criticism has been leveled by cosmopolitan philosophers that philanthropy is unable to effectively combat poverty for many reasons: such funds fall prey to corrupt bureaucrats, the poor will waste the money, or become dependent upon donations rather than providing for themselves. In this paper, I argue that the work of the organization GiveDirectly offers an approach that can overcome the criticisms leveled against philanthropy. GiveDirectly works by providing direct cash transfers to the poor; by adopting such a straightforward method, GiveDirectly provides practical benefits to the poor, and overcomes key philosophical critiques. The poor are empowered to make choices to meet their own needs, and do not become dependent upon donations. While GiveDirectly does not constitute the solution to the problem of global poverty, it does provide an avenue by which philanthropic efforts can make a difference in the battle against poverty, in ways that best respect and promote the autonomy of the poor.     

Academic self-regulation as a function of age: the mediating role of autonomy support and differentiation in school

Numerous studies in the tradition of the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan in Can Psychol 49(1):14–23, 2008) point out the significance of self-determined academic motivation and its relevance for learning processes and well-being. Whereas these results sketch a rather heterogeneous picture of the development of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, only a limited amount of research results are dedicated to the development of academic self-regulation. This cross-sectional research is based on the data of 432 pupils aged 6–20 from primary to secondary school. With the aid of questionnaires, participants provided information concerning their academic self-regulation and how much autonomy support and differentiation they perceive in school. The results of cluster analysis and structural equation modelling indicated that age is negatively related to academic self-regulation, while intrinsic and (rather) controlled regulation decreased the older the pupils are. The values for rather self-determined regulation remained comparatively stable. In addition, the longer pupils attended school, the less they reported perceived autonomy support and differentiation. Perceived autonomy support had an impact on intrinsic and rather self-determined regulation but not on controlled regulation, whereas perceived differentiation was not related to academic self-regulation. These findings offer novel explanations why settings in schools—especially in secondary schools—can become less suitable for learners (Eccles and Roeser in Handbook of adolescent psychology, Wiley, Hoboken, pp 404–434, 2009) and how they can assist educators in designing autonomous learning environments that contribute to maintaining and developing intrinsic and self-determined academic regulation strategies.     

Intrinsic and extrinsic school motivation as a function of age: the mediating role of autonomy support

The main purpose of the present research was to investigate school intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and amotivation as a function of age in a sample of 1,600 elementary and high school students aged 9–17 years. First, results revealed a systematic decrease in intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation from age 9 to 12 years, a slow stabilization until 15 years old, followed by an increase after that point. Second, non self-determined extrinsic motivation showed a decrease up to 12 years old and a slow stabilization after that point. Finally, amotivation was relatively low and stable from age 9 to 17 years. Of importance is that the present results also revealed that teacher autonomy support mediated the age-school motivation relationships. The present results underscore the importance of a better understanding of the mechanisms through which lower intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation in older students take place, eventually leading to appropriate interventions and optimal motivation in students of all ages.     

Giving up and giving in: the costs and benefits of daily sacrifice in intimate relationships

This research provided the first empirical investigation of how approach and avoidance motives for sacrifice in intimate relationships are associated with personal well-being and relationship quality. In Study 1, the nature of everyday sacrifices made by dating partners was examined, and a measure of approach and avoidance motives for sacrifice was developed. In Study 2, which was a 2-week daily experience study of college students in dating relationships, specific predictions from the theoretical model were tested and both longitudinal and dyadic components were included. Whereas approach motives for sacrifice were positively associated with personal well-being and relationship quality, avoidance motives for sacrifice were negatively associated with personal well-being and relationship quality. Sacrificing for avoidance motives was particularly detrimental to the maintenance of relationships over time. Perceptions of a partner's motives for sacrifice were also associated with well-being and relationship quality. Implications for the conceptualization of relationship maintenance processes along these 2 dimensions are discussed.     

Individual autonomy in work teams: The role of team autonomy,self-efficacy,and social support

Task autonomy is long recognized as a means to improve functioning of individuals and teams. Taking a multilevel approach, we unravelled the constructs of team and individual autonomy and studied the interplay between team autonomy, self-efficacy, and social support in determining individual autonomy of team members. Hierarchical regression results of a survey among 733 members of 76 health care teams showed that individual autonomy was related not only to the level of team autonomy, but also to self-efficacy and social support. Moreover, results suggested that social support moderates the extent to which team autonomy is incorporated into the individual tasks of team members. In highly autonomous teams, individuals experiencing moderate support from co-workers and supervisors reported higher individual autonomy than members experiencing either low or very high support.     

Autonomy,culture, and well-being: The benefits of inclusive autonomy

In an attempt to understand cultural variation in motivation, we distinguished between the type of motivation (ranging from controlled to autonomous, as conventionally measured) and the subject of motivation (“I” vs. “my family and I”), creating measures of individual and inclusive academic motivation. Support was found for three hypotheses. First, Chinese Canadian and Singaporean students felt less relative autonomy than European Canadian students, on both the inclusive and individual measures. Second, individual relative autonomy was associated with psychological well-being (WB) for European Canadians and Chinese Canadians (Study 1), and Singaporeans (Study 2). Third, inclusive relative autonomy was associated with psychological well-being for Chinese Canadians and Singaporeans, but not European Canadians. Exploratory analyses are also presented, and implications for the theory and measurement of autonomy are discussed.