Why classroom token economies fail

The reasons for clinical failures of classroom token economies are divided into three groups: (1) Problems associated with the token program itself, (2) Problems associated with the teacher, and (3) Problems associated with the specific population on which the classroom token economy is used. Each of these problem areas is discussed. Methods of anticipating problems before they occur are enumerated and ways of solving them should they occur are illustrated.     

Feature analysis and the token test

In a picture-matching task pictures of objects had to be arranged into pairs by aphasic and nonaphasic patients and normal controls. Aphasic patients were also given the Token Test. Correlation between the rank order of error scores in both tests was highly significant in aphasic patients. The pictures were also given to a normal group for free matching. Overlapping of normal performance on free matching and aphasic performance on bound matching occurred. We hypothesized that aphasic impairment was due to a difficulty in calling up associations, difficulty in feature analysis, and in moving from one concept to another. These findings are discussed in the light of abilities needed for Token Test performance. The results indicate that the traditionally presumed fundamental difference between verbal and nonverbal cognitive tasks is rather unsatisfactory.     

Intrinsic reinforcers in a classroom token economy

An inexpensive, easily managed token economy was used in a normal classroom for one academic year, and data were collected for the entire academic performance in spelling, language, handwriting, and math for that year. During a baseline period, assignment completion was variable. The introduction of a token economy with a point exchange every five days increased assignment completion and decreased variability of performance. An application of a token economy that had a point exchange averaging four days was accompanied by an assignment completion rate that approximated 100%. A reinforcement contingency for which quiet behavior rather than for assignment completion was eased quiet behavior was accompanied by a marked diminution of assignment completion. A reintroduction of the token reinforcement for assignment completion system increased assignment completion again.     

The token economy: an evaluative review

Token economies have been applied in a wide range of settings. While there are several advantages to the use of this procedure, there are obstacles that may impede its implementation and therapeutic efficacy. These include: staff training, client resistance, circumvention of the contingencies, and non-responsiveness of subjects. Studies employing token programs with psychiatric patients, retardates, children in classroom settings, delinquents, and autistic children are reviewed. Although token economies are successful while in operation, the issue of generalization of behavior gains or resistance to extinction has not been given careful consideration. Inasmuch as generalization is perhaps the most crucial issue, several procedures are presented that are designed to facilitate maintenance of performance when reinforcement is withdrawn. Methodological suggestions for investigations on token reinforcement in applied settings are presented.     

Frequency encoding of token and type information

Two experiments examined how attention to stimulus attributes affects knowledge of frequency of occurrence. In Experiment 1, orienting tasks were used to direct subjects' attention to either the category membership or the initial letters of words. In Experiment 2, subjects' attention to words, category membership, and initial letters was directed with explicit instructions. The results of these two experiments suggest that attention to specific stimulus attributes may be necessary to initiate the encoding of frequency information. We discuss the implications of these results for claims that the encoding of frequency of occurrence is automatic.     

Maintaining patients' improvements in a token economy.

Eighteen long stay male patients (diagnosis chronic schizophrenia) were involved in a six month token economy prior to random assignment to one of three experimental groups to investigate the importance of social reinforcement and other token-related variables in maintaining improvements brought about by the token system. Assessment included standardised psychiatric rating scales, nurse rating scales, and behavioural measures. Analysis of variance suggests the full token economy system produced significant improvements, but that the social factors involved in token exchanges were not demonstrably important sources of reinforcement. and that none of the variables studies at the experimental phase were critical factors. Once patients returned to a complete token system, results indicate that this may have more value in the promotion of work activities rather than social responding. It is argued that the token system provides a necessary clear structure within which nurses can encourage continuous improvements with long stay patients.     

A token economy program for chronic schizophrenic patients

Abstract.— A token economy program was applied on a ward for 12 chronic schizophrenic patients. An ABABC-design, i.e. a group reversal design with a noncontingent reinforcement phase at the end, was used to evaluate the treatment. The patients' activity-level increased from baseline to the treatment phase. During the reversal period the activity-level decreased but it increased again when the token economy was reintroduced. The non-contingent reinforcement resulted in the predicted decrease for two of the six behaviors recorded. Five of the twelve patients were discharged from the ward during the 8-month program period and none of them had been readmitted at the end of the one year follow-up. Individual treatment programs for two of the patients concerning aggressive acts, deficient eye-contact and lip-biting are described.