Authoritarianism and social distance attitudes towards offenders released from prison

It was hypothesized that authoritarian individuals maintain attitudes of greater social distance towards (a) violent offenders, (b) violent young offenders, (c) non-violent offenders, and (d) non-violent young offenders released from prison. Correlations of scores on Boehm's Legal Attitudes Questionnaire for the offender groups supported the hypothesis. Subjects were 48 students in management science. Apparently high authoritarians would like to maintain attitudes of greater social distance from violent offenders than non-violent offenders released from prison.     

Psychological correlates of violent and non-violent Hong Kong juvenile probationers

There is little known about Hong Kong juvenile offenders on probation. The purpose of this study was to compare Hong Kong juvenile violent with non-violent probationers on static demographic and psychological variables. The study comprised 109 male juvenile probationers aged 14-20 years (M = 16.97, SD = 1.44) in community transitional housing; 34 were adjudicated for violent offenses, while 75 were non-violent. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Social Bonding Scale-Theft (SBS-T), Social Bonding Scale-Violent Crime (SBS-VC), Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS), Impulsiveness Scale-Short Form (IS-SF) and CRIME-PICS II were administered to measure self-esteem, life satisfaction, social bond, positive and negative affect, impulsivity, pro-offending attitudes, and self-perceived life problems. Data on onset age of delinquent behavior, age of first adjudication, number of prior adjudications, and frequency of self-reported delinquency in the past year were also collected. t-tests were consistent with significant differences for violent offenders including higher self-esteem (p < 0.05). Non-violent offenders self-reported significantly more theft (p < 0.05) with a tendency to deny victim hurt more often (p < 0.01); 76.5% of violent offenders self-reported both violent and non-violent crime, while 58.7% of non-violent offenders reported only non-violent crime. For violent and non-violent offenders, the onset of delinquency was inversely related to the frequency of self-reported delinquency. Using ordinary least-squares (OLS) regression analyses, self-anticipated violent reoffending risk was predicted by age of onset, frequency of self-reported delinquency, social bond (inversely), and impulsivity, while non-violent reoffending risk was predicted by the number of prior convictions and self-reported delinquency. Only two psychological correlates, social bond and impulsivity, were related to violent delinquency; interventions are suggested.     

Adversary effects and the tactics of violent offenders

We examine the implication of adversary effects for target choice, lethal intent, and the use of weapons and allies in violent incidents. Adversary effects refer to the tendency of offenders to make tactical decisions based on the coercive power of victims and potential victims. Using the victim's gender as a proxy for coercive power, we analyzed violent incidents from the National Incident‐Based Reporting System (2005–2014). The sample included over six million assaults, robberies, and homicides. Consistent with adversary effects, offenders who attack males (vs. females) are more likely to (a) kill victims; (b) use guns, knives, blunt objects, poison, and automobiles; (c) use male (but not female) allies; and (d) use multiple allies. The evidence for target choice is mixed: unarmed female offenders, but not unarmed male offenders, are more likely to target females than males. The evidence shows how a simple theoretical principle can parsimoniously account for basic patterns of violence in society related to gender, weapons, and group violence.     

Personality, intelligence and personal space among violent and non-violent delinquents

McGurk, Davis and Grehan (1981) have suggested that personality variables may have a moderating effect on the violence—personal space relationship originally reported by Kinzel (1970). Similarly, Wright (1974) has reported enhanced personal space in inmates classified as of low intelligence. The present study was undertaken in order to further investigate possible confounding effects of personality and intelligence differences on the relationship between aggressive behaviour and spatial use. A direct approach stop-distance and a semi-blind measure of personal space were obtained for a group of violent young offenders and a non-violent control group. Verbal and Non-verbal Intelligence scores and personality scores were also collected. Analysis of variance showed no significant differences in personal space size between the violent and non-violent group on any one measure. However, a significant interaction effect was found between violence, P and Non-verbal Intelligence such that violent inmates exhibited augmented personal space in relation to non-violent inmates only in the cases of those scoring both low on Non-verbal Intelligence and high on P. These findings contradict earlier research reporting a difference in spatial use between violent and non-violent Ss. It is concluded that the lack of a standardized well-controlled technique for measuring personal space has resulted in ambiguous findings in this area of research.     

Utilization of emotion cues in male and female offenders with antisocial personality disorder: results from a lexical decision task

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) diagnoses have demonstrated good reliability and validity in male offenders. However, there is a paucity of research assessing utilization of emotion cues in ASPD individuals and the extent to which correlates of ASPD in males generalize to females. This investigation examined emotion utilization in incarcerated men and women with and without ASPD using a lexical decision task with emotional and neutral words. The performance of male offenders with ASPD was similar to that of male controls, whereas women with ASPD demonstrated greater emotional facilitation than female controls. Moreover, the number of violent crimes committed by female inmates with ASPD was related to emotion facilitation, suggesting a link between their sensitivity to emotion cues and antisocial behavior.     

Gender differences and the effect of contextual features on game enjoyment and responses

This article explores the effect of gender and contextual features on emotional reactions, identification toward game characters, and game enjoyment. Two aspects of contextual features are specifically examined: the moral justification of game characters and violence. An experiment was conducted by allowing participants to play either a morally justified character of a non-violent game, a morally justified character of a violent game, or a morally unjustified character of a violent game. The results show that participants felt less guilty and identified with the characters more when playing the morally justified characters of the non-violent game. Furthermore, males and females demonstrate different patterns of enjoyment to different contextual features of video games. The implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.     

Attachment & violent offending: A meta-analysis

Attachment theory provides a useful framework for understanding violence as it acknowledges the importance of both interpersonal and developmental factors. The literature suggests that attachment is associated with violence, but the research evidence is equivocal as to whether insecure attachment was a risk factor for criminality, psychopathology more generally, or both. The current study therefore conducted a systematic review of the literature using meta-analytic methods. Results indicated that insecure attachment was strongly associated with all types of criminality (i.e. sexual offending, violent offending, non-violent offending, and domestic violence) even in the absence of psychopathology. Further sub-group analyses indicated differences in attachment patterns between sexual offenders and violent offenders, for example. The implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for further research are made.     

A longitudinal examination of the relation between co‐offending with violent accomplices and violent crime

Although the idea that youthful offenders are affected by the company they keep is widely accepted, evidence in support of this idea is based primarily on reports provided by offenders and their peers. As an alternative to relying on reports of criminal behavior, a method that may overestimate the role that peers play in criminal behavior, the current research on co‐offending uses court records to identify and track over time individuals who are known to commit crimes together. The present investigation is the first co‐offending study to track patterns of violent criminal behavior (over an 18‐year period) among a sample of urban offenders and their accomplices. The study tests whether violence “spreads” from violent offenders to those inexperienced in violence. Results indicate that nonviolent offenders who commit their first co‐offense with violent accomplices are at increased risk for subsequent serious violent crime. Findings suggest that lessons of violence can be learned “on the street,” where knowledge is passed along through impromptu social contexts, including those in which offenders commit crimes together. Aggr. Behav. 28:97–108, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Factor Analysis of the Italian Version of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire in a Community Sample

Despite difficulties measuring parenting styles, many studies have demonstrated a significant relationship between disruptive children and certain parenting practices. One of the most frequently used scales to measure parenting styles is the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ). This scale was originally defined based on theoretical dimensions and using samples from the USA. Therefore, both factor analysis studies and its adaptation to other countries have been proposed to improve and widen its use. The aim of this study was to adapt the APQ to the Italian population. A community sample of 258 mothers and children (94 %) and 192 fathers (70 %) from 274 families with children from 10- to 14-years-old who agreed to participate and met the inclusion criteria completed the APQ. Principal components and exploratory factor analyses resulted in a unique 19-item version of the APQ for mothers, fathers, and children. This unified version has resulted in two factor categories: positive (12 items) and negative parenting (7 items). The internal consistency and goodness of fit of the model were satisfactory. Moderate and significant convergent validity were found for mothers and fathers but not for children. In fact, we found differences in validity rates among the participants. Children perceived less positive and more negative parenting than did fathers and mothers, and mothers believed that they provided more positive parenting than did other parents. In conclusion, the APQ Italian version of the parents and children global report forms are considered a suitable measure for positive and negative parenting styles with acceptable validity and reliability indices.     

Psychopathic traits in adolescent offenders: an evaluation of criminal history, clinical, and psychosocial correlates

Although a large body of research has established the relevance of psychopathy to adult offenders, its relevance to adolescent offenders is far less clear. The current study evaluated the clinical, psychosocial and criminal correlates of psychopathic traits in a sample of 226 male and female incarcerated adolescent offenders. According to an 18-item version of the Psychopathy Checklist-Youth Version (PCL-YV; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003), only 9.4% exhibited a high level of psychopathic traits (PCL-YV>/=25). Consistent with past research, higher PCL-YV scores were positively associated with self-reported delinquency and aggressive behavior and were unrelated to emotional difficulties. Although higher PCL-YV scores were associated with the experience of physical abuse, the only psychosocial factor to predict PCL-YV scores was a history of non-parental living arrangements (e.g. foster care). In terms of criminality, a violent/versatile criminal history was positively associated with psychopathic traits. However, PCL-YV scores were unrelated to participants' official criminal records for total, non-violent, violent, and technical violation convictions. In conclusion, the data partially support the construct validity of psychopathy with adolescent offenders, but some inconsistencies with prior adult and adolescent psychopathy research were evident. These issues are discussed.     

Testing the specificity postulate of the violence graduation hypothesis: Meta-analyses of the animal cruelty–offending relationship

The violence graduation hypothesis assumes a direct causal link between animal cruelty and interpersonal aggression. This hypothesis is based on two postulates: (1) that animal cruelty precedes interpersonal aggression, and (2) that the effect is specific to violent forms of antisocial behavior. The current study was designed to test the second of these two postulates: i.e., specificity. Comparing reports of prior animal cruelty in violent and non-violent prisoners and patients, a 14-study meta-analysis revealed that the violent group was significantly more likely to have a history of animal cruelty than the non-violent group. Although this seemed to support the violence graduation hypothesis, uncontrolled differences between the violent and non-violent groups provide an alternative explanation of these results. In a second meta-analysis using a different set of studies (k = 5), animal cruelty was found to correlate as well with non-violent offending as it did with violent offending in male and mixed gender samples. These latter results suggest that at least in males, the animal cruelty–offending relationship is not specific to violence and that theories other than the violence graduation hypothesis may be required to explain the modest association that exists between animal cruelty and violent offending.     

An empirical classification of non-violent offenders using the MMPI

MMPI protocols of 87 non-violent male offenders were cluster analysed on eight experimental scales. Four clusters emerged. These were compared with the findings from 105 prisoners with convictions for violence. Clusters tended to be similar across the two samples with the exception of the ‘Inhibited’ offender. This non-violent group tended to be less psychiatrically disturbed, as well as less introverted, anxious and hostile than its corresponding violent cluster.     

Executive cognitive functioning and the recognition of facial expressions of emotion in incarcerated violent offenders, non-violent offenders, and controls

Violence is a social problem that carries enormous costs; however, our understanding of its etiology is quite limited. A large body of research exists, which suggests a relationship between abnormalities of the frontal lobe and aggression; as a result, many researchers have implicated deficits in so-called "executive function" as an antecedent to aggressive behaviour. Another possibility is that violence may be related to problems interpreting facial expressions of emotion, a deficit associated with many forms of psychopathology, and an ability linked to the prefrontal cortex. The current study investigated performance on measures of executive function and on a facial-affect recognition task in 20 violent offenders, 20 non-violent offenders, and 20 controls. In support of our hypotheses, both offender groups performed significantly more poorly on measures of executive function relative to controls. In addition, violent offenders were significantly poorer on the facial-affect recognition task than either of the other two groups. Interestingly, scores on these measures were significantly correlated, with executive deficits associated with difficulties accurately interpreting facial affect. The implications of these results are discussed in terms of a broader understanding of violent behaviour.     

Violent video games and anger as predictors of aggression

Considerable research has demonstrated that playing violent video games can increase aggression. The theoretical framework upon which a good deal of this research has rested is known as the General Aggression Model (GAM; [Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51]). The current study tested an assumption of the GAM by examining if the dispositional trait of anger moderated the relation between violent video games and aggression. A total of 167 undergraduate students (79 females, 88 males) first completed a measure of anger and were then randomly assigned to play either a non-violent or violent video game. After the video game play period, participants completed ambiguous story stems in order to assess aggression. Consistent with predictions of the GAM, anger significantly moderated the effect of video game violence on aggression. Specifically, participants who were angry were more affected by violent video games than participants who were not angry.     

Psychometric properties of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS-2) in a Spanish sample of partner-violent men

Intimate partner violence is a complex problem that requires the update of the available assessment tools. The aim of the study is to test the revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS-2) in partner-violent men. Its structure and other psychometric properties are analyzed in 173 convicted offenders from Brians-2 and Alhaurín de la Torre penitentiaries. Discriminant validity is also assessed by comparing offenders with 108 males from the general population. The internal consistency for the 39 items of perpetration is .88 (varying from .59 to .83 among the subscales). The validity data indicate that the scale is useful to discriminate between batterers and general population in physical and psychological violence, although there is an overlap between different types of violence, and it is difficult to compare self-reports with external criteria such court decisions. The results of confirmatory factorial analysis do not support the original five-factor structure. Using exploratory factorial analysis, four components with good internal consistency were identified: Physical (.86), Sexual (.75), and Psychological Violence (.82), and Negotiation (.83). Recommendations for use and a reference guide of rating scores in samples of offenders are suggested.     

Reliability and Validity Evaluation of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) in Swedish correctional and forensic psychiatric samples

This study evaluated the structural reliability, construct-related validity, and cultural validity generalization of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) in a sample of more than 560 male and female Swedish forensic psychiatric treatment patients, forensic evaluation patients, and criminal offenders. Structural reliability was excellent for most indices. PCL:SV scores were higher for males than females for total and Part 1 scores (interpersonal/affective features) but not for Part 2 (behavioral features). With some exceptions, PCL:SV scores were meaningfully related to aggression to others, a measure of risk for violence, substance use problems, personality disorder (positive), and psychosis (negative). Correlations between PCL:SV and aggression were larger for females than males, although the difference was smaller when personality disorder was held constant. The structural reliability and pattern of validity coefficients were comparable in these Swedish samples to other non-North American samples. Implications for the cross-cultural manifestation and correlates of psychopathy are discussed.     

虚拟化身对攻击性的启动效应:游戏暴力性、玩家性别的影响

虚拟化身是个体在虚拟环境中的自我呈现,化身形象是与特定刻板印象相联系的虚拟化身的外在表象。虚拟化身与攻击性的关系已得到证实,但还有一些问题尚需探讨。本研究通过2个实验,采用线索启动的方法,考察了化身形象、游戏暴力性和玩家性别对化身认同和攻击性的影响,以及化身认同和攻击性之间的关系。实验1结果表明:化身形象与游戏暴力性交互影响化身认同和攻击性。在暴力游戏中,化身形象对化身认同和攻击性有显著影响;在非暴力游戏中,化身形象对化身认同的影响边缘显著,但对攻击性无显著影响。对不同化身形象的认同会诱发不同的攻击性,但受游戏暴力性的影响。实验2结果表明:在暴力游戏中,化身形象与玩家性别交互影响化身认同和攻击性。女性在化身认同方面比男性更易受化身形象影响;男性在攻击性方面比女性更易受化身形象影响。对不同化身形象的认同会导致不同的攻击性,但受性别的影响。     

暴力犯罪者对负性情绪信息注意偏向的ERP研究

采用视觉搜索范式,探讨了暴力犯罪者对情绪刺激（愤怒面孔与高兴面孔）的注意偏向特点。行为数据显示,相比非暴力组,暴力组对愤怒面孔的反应要显著快于高兴面孔,初步验证了暴力犯罪者对负性情绪信息存在注意偏向。ERP数据进一步表明,当目标刺激为愤怒面孔时,暴力组N2pc的潜伏期要显著小于非暴力组,说明暴力犯罪者对愤怒面孔的觉察早于高兴面孔,对负性情绪刺激更为敏感。由于N2pc的波幅不存在显著差异,差异主要表现在反应时和潜伏期,说明暴力犯能够更快的觉察到负性情绪面孔,但并没有对其投入更多的注意资源,出现回避模式,表明暴力犯对负性情绪信息的加工是一种警觉—回避模式。