Not Always a Straight Path: College Students’ Narratives of Heterosexual Identity Development

Research has recently begun to examine heterosexual identity development, providing preliminary evidence of variation within a sexual identity category that has frequently been conceptualized as uniform and unremarkable. The current study sought to classify and describe young adult participants’ narratives on their heterosexual identity development using Worthington et al. (2002) heterosexual identity status model. Participants included 1,051 heterosexually-identified undergraduates (632 women; 419 men) from two public universities in the western United States who provided written narratives about their sexual identity development. Responses were analyzed for levels of identity exploration and commitment, which were used to create five identity status categories. The majority of participants described identity commitment with passive exploration, with more men in this category than women. A significant subset of participants described identity commitment with active exploration, with more women in this category than men. Smaller numbers of participants described active exploration without commitment, unexplored commitment, and identity diffusion. More women were in the active exploration without commitment status than men; no gender differences emerged in the other two statuses. Participants classified into statuses with active exploration and higher commitment also evidenced higher scores on quantitative measures of sexual identity exploration and commitment, respectively. Men evidenced higher quantitative scores than women on identity commitment; there were no gender differences in the quantitative assessment of identity exploration. Findings support the existence of variations and systematic gender-based differences in young adults’ heterosexual identity development.     

Gender, Immigrant Generation, and Ethnocultural Identity

The relation of gender and immigrant generation to ethnocultural identity was examined in an ethnically diverse sample of young adults from immigrant families. We hypothesized that gender differences in ethnocultural identity would occur among the second-generation (those born in the receiving society) daughters and sons of parents who were immigrants. Participants completed several measures that assessed identity and self-construal, including ethnocultural identity. As predicted, among participants who were the second-generation children of immigrants, gender differences occurred on ethnic identity achievement (defined as seeking to learn about and understand one's ethnicity) and reported behavioral commitment (e.g., maintaining cultural practices). Women endorsed these 2 components of ethnic identity more strongly than men did. Second-generation women and men whose parents were immigrants did not, however, differ in a third component of ethnocultural identity, namely, pride and attachment to one's ethnocultural group. The implications of this pattern of findings are discussed.     

Age differences in and correlates of identity status from college through middle adulthood

Adults ranging from 20 to 42 years of age were compared on the Extended Objective Measure of Identity Statuses, a questionnaire measure of identity statuses in the domains of ideological and interpersonal development. As hypothesized, compared to current college students, men and women over 30 years of age showed patterns of more mature identity development in both domains with the exception of foreclosure scores in the interpersonal domain that remained stable. Relationships between life commitments and identity statuses were analyzed separately for adults in their 30s compared to those in their 40s, revealing complex interactions with gender and normative cohort expectations. As hypothesized, relationships between identity statuses and adult commitments were more generally observed for the younger adult cohort, for whom individual differences in psychosocial development rather than age-related expectations might be expected to serve as determinants of early life choices.     

高中生的个人规划与抑郁的关系：性别的调节作用

以1261名高一和高三青少年为被试,采用个人规划问卷和抑郁量表,考察了高中生对未来教育、职业和婚姻/家庭领域的个人规划(探索和投入)与抑郁之间的关系,以及性别在其中的调节作用。研究发现:(1)高中生的个人规划对抑郁的预测具有领域特殊性:教育探索和投入可以显著负向预测抑郁,婚姻/家庭探索显著正向预测抑郁、婚姻/家庭投入显著负向预测抑郁,职业探索和投入均不能预测抑郁;(2)性别能调节婚姻/家庭探索与抑郁之间的关系:女生对婚姻/家庭的探索水平越高,其抑郁水平越高,男生对婚姻/家庭的探索则不能预测其抑郁。     

Future orientation,identity and intimacy: Their relations in emerging adulthood

This study examined the relationships between future orientation and identity and intimacy among Israeli emerging adults. Future orientation was defined in terms of behavioural (exploration, commitment) and motivational variables (value, expectance, and control) as they apply to two domains representing major adult tasks: career and family. Results showed that both career and family future orientation variables were related to identity and intimacy, with greater differences between the exploration and commitment links to identity and intimacy than among the motivational variables links to identity and intimacy. Specifically, although identity and intimacy were intercorrelated, commitment was related to identity and exploration was related to intimacy, while value and expectance (i.e., confidence about materialization of hopes and plans) were related to both. However, by controlling for the effect of identity, a negative relationship between commitment to career and intimacy was unmasked.     

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Family Therapy Alliance Scale: An Evaluation of Factor Structure Across Parents and Adolescents Referred for At Risk Services

This study examines the factor structure of the Family Therapy Alliance Scale for mothers, fathers, and adolescents. Participants are 425 individuals from 216 families referred for family therapy for child abuse or neglect. Findings provide some evidence of construct validity. The three-factor model comprised of the alliance content domains of bonds, goals, and tasks and the interpersonal domains of individual, other, and family provided excellent fit. The nine-factor model exhibited poor fit, while an adjusted six-factor model which eliminated the “other” sub-category showed promise for further research. Findings support the reliability of the content and interpersonal domain’s subscales.     

Exploring Normative Creativity: Testing the Relationship Between Cognitive Flexibility and Sexual Identity

Brown (1989) proposed that lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals possess greater “normative creativity” and flexibility than heterosexuals because they have fewer norms for living in heterosexually dominated society. In this article we explore one possible individual difference between heterosexuals and nonheterosexuals in the domain of normative creativity by examining the relationship between cognitive flexibility and sexual identity among 358 university students. Participants with sexual identities not directed toward one gender exclusively (e.g., bisexual, biaffectionate, or queer) scored significantly higher on a measure of cognitive flexibility than did heterosexual and gay/lesbian participants; the latter two groups did not differ from each other. These results suggest that it is having a nonexclusive sexual identity, rather than a lesbian or gay identity, that is related to greater cognitive flexibility.     

The Transition to Young Adulthood: Generational Boundary Dissolution and Female Identity Development

This research explored links between differential qualities of family connectedness and young adult females' development of an independent identity. Identity development involves exploration of possible roles and choices in particular domains such as occupation, dating, and friendship, followed by commitment to a set of values and behaviors in one of these areas. In this study, women who reported that their parents encouraged autonomy while still maintaining closeness also reported more exploration in their friendship and dating relationships. In contrast, reports of parent-child boundary dissolution, characterized by role-reversal, enmeshment, and overinvolvement, were related to less exploration, particularly in dating relationships. Mother-daughter boundary dissolution, specifically, was linked to women'stendency to base their commitments to a career and relationships with others on parental values and expectations without ever exploring alternative choices. Father-daughter boundary dissolution was related to lower exploration as well as lower commitment to values and beliefs in any area. These findings lend support to theoretical and clinical impressions that inter-generational boundary violations hinder the development of an independent identity.     

Relationships between identity domains and life satisfaction in minority and majority youth in Albania,Bulgaria, Czech Republic,Kosovo, and Romania

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between identity domains (educational and relational identity) and life satisfaction in a cross-national perspective, by targeting minority (Roma) and majority youth in Albania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Kosovo, and Romania. Based on the three-factor identity formation model, we investigated the interplay between three identity processes (i.e., commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment) and life satisfaction. Participants were 1860 adolescents aged 12–19 years from Albania (n = 350), Bulgaria (n = 398), the Czech Republic (n = 293), Kosovo (n = 542), and Romania (n = 277). They completed self-reports of the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS) and the Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS). We adopted a structural equation modelling approach to test (a) measurement invariance of identity and life satisfaction models across groups and (b) associations between identity domains (educational and relational) and life satisfaction. Findings indicated measurement invariance for identity and life satisfaction measures across cultural groups. In the total sample, life satisfaction was consistently associated with high commitment, high in-depth exploration, and low reconsideration of commitment in the educational identity domain. Sample-specific associations highlighted important cultural differences. Implications of these findings for identity and well-being in minority and mainstream youth across the countries under investigation are discussed.     

Stayovers in emerging adulthood: Who stays over and why?

Emerging adulthood is an intense period of personal development and interpersonal exploration; most emerging adults engage in several romantic relationships of varying commitment levels throughout their late teens and early twenties. The current study explored whether one relationship behavior, staying over, is related to specific demographic characteristics, previous experiences, and personal beliefs and attitudes. A sample of 627 emerging adults were surveyed about their experiences with staying overnight with their romantic partners, their reasons for doing so, and their attitudes about full‐time cohabitation. Participants who were older, had cohabited at some point, lived independently from family, viewed religion as unimportant, and had positive attitudes about cohabitation were found to be more likely to stay over.     

Responses to interpersonal conflict among young adults: Influence of family of origin

This study aimed to examine the role of family environment upon responses to interpersonal conflict in young adulthood, and to determine whether response patterns differed between men and women. Behavioral, affective, and cardiovascular responses of 17 young adults from families rated extreme (EXT) on scales of cohesion and flexibility were compared with those of 21 young adults from balanced (BAL) families. Participants engaged in 2 role‐play conflicts, 1 with a male confederate and 1 with a female confederate. Measures of positive and negative verbal and nonverbal behaviors, self‐reported anxiety and anger, and heart rate and blood pressure were obtained. Results showed EXT participants exhibited more negative verbal and less positive verbal behavior during both interactions than BAL participants. EXT men exhibited greater DBP, state anger, and negative nonverbal responses than BAL men, findings not observed for women. These findings indicate that exposure to a negative family environment influences how young adult men respond to interpersonal confrontation more than young adult women.     

Family influences on commitment: Examining the family of origin correlates of relationship commitment attitudes

Two studies were conducted to investigate the lessons about relationship commitment that people gain from their families of origin. In the first study, participants identified a story from their families of origin that characterized a number of themes about commitment. In the second study, these themes were further refined to reveal eight factors underlying these themes: dedication to partner, constraints on relationships, relationships are impermanent, disillusionment, family and gender influences, approaching relationships with caution, relationships take work, and divorce has negative consequences. Ratings of the themes varied by the occurrence of parental divorce, perceived parental marital happiness, and gender. Commitment lessons remembered from families of origin also were associated with the participants’ reported level of commitment in their current relationships. Implications for current theory on commitment are discussed.     

How Do U.S. Students Perceive Trans Persons?

This study explored undergraduate students’ interpersonal responses, namely general feelings toward and desire for further social interaction with trans persons in a helping context. Secondarily, this study explored the relationship between participants’ intrinsic empathy, interpersonal curiosity and interest in further interaction. Two hundred fifty-one undergraduates at a moderate sized university in the southeastern United States served as participants. In order to assess baseline levels of empathy and curiosity, participants in session 1 completed the Interpersonal Reactivity Scale (Davis 1983) and the Interpersonal Curiosity Scale (Litman and Pezzo 2007). One week later, during session 2, the same students assumed the role of a peer counselor and read 1 of 4 (male, female, male-to-female, female-to-male) randomly assigned versions of an intake form completed by a fictitious peer client. Each version was identical, with the exception of the gender identity of the peer client. Participants completed various measures of affect and interest in further interaction. Male participants reported less willingness to interact with, and the strongest negative feelings toward the FTM peer client. Men reported highest willingness to interact with the MTF client and showed the lowest negative reactions towards the MTF client. Female participants’ scores on willingness to interact and on negative reactions were similar across all four intake form versions. Contrary to expectations, baseline levels of empathy and curiosity did not impact responses to gender expression. Further investigation is needed to elucidate the factors associated with anti-transgender prejudice particularly in the context of helping relationships.     

The Shapes of Commitment Development in Emerging Adulthood

Based on a model developed by Kunnen et al. (in: Nurmi (ed) Navigating through adolescence: European perspectives, 2001), we investigated trajectories of commitment development in university students and their relation with well-being, identity style, coping, personality, and ego-development. By means of cluster analysis on individual trajectories, we distinguished different clusters of trajectories in six domains of life. Almost all clusters could be classified according to the identity status theory, either on a moratorium-achieved trajectory (MAMA), or as a stable trajectory in one of the four identity statuses. As expected, clusters with stable strong commitment had highest levels of well-being, and MAMA clusters had highest levels of ego-development. In general, the condition “having no commitments for a prolonged period” was more strongly related to non-optimal outcomes than the condition “no exploration.” This is surprising, given the important role of exploration in identity development. We suggested that having no commitments may affect—probably temporarily—the coping preferences and personality characteristics. Differences between the domains can be interpreted as effects of different societal demands and the social or non-social nature of the domain.     

Need for Family Therapy Services for Middle-Class Families in India

This qualitative study explored the needs of Indian middle-class families for family therapy services. Four focus group interviews were conducted with middle-class parents in Madras, India. Participants were introduced to the concept and practice of family therapy and were encouraged to take a more active role in supporting the services they suggested. Participants identified problems faced by Madras middle class families and five different types of services that they were aware of. Three categories of need for family therapy were identified from the narratives of the participants. Several themes fit in each of the three categories. Implications for clinical application are discussed.     

Identity configurations across love and work in emerging adults in romantic relationships

Love and work constitute two life-defining identity domains for emerging adults. The present study utilized a five-dimensional identity model and examined identity configurations across these two domains, capturing the degree to which identity statuses correspond across domains. A sample of German 18–30-year-olds who were either working or studying and engaged in a romantic relationship was assessed at baseline and three years later. Six identity clusters emerged in each domain. Combining identity clusters across love and work domains, 7 identity configurations were distinguished. Whereas some configurations were characterized by strong commitments in one or both domains, other configurations consisted of individuals scoring low on commitment and high on exploration and rumination. These configurations were differentially related to psychological symptoms, work stress and satisfaction, and family–work conflict, both concurrently and longitudinally. Individuals characterized by high commitments in love and work provided the most favorable responses on all outcomes.     

Eyes on the prize: The longitudinal benefits of goal focus on progress toward a weight loss goal

Past research suggests that focusing on what has not yet been accomplished (goal focus) signals a lack of progress towards one's high commitment goals and inspires greater motivation than does focusing on what has already been accomplished (accomplishment focus). The present investigation extends this research to a longitudinal, important domain by exploring the consequences of focusing on one's goals versus accomplishments when pursuing a weight loss goal. Participants were tracked over the course of a 12-week weight loss program that utilized weekly group discussions and a companion website to direct participants' focus toward their end weight loss goal or toward what they had already achieved. Goal-focused participants reported higher levels of commitment to their goal and, ultimately, lost more weight than did accomplishment-focused and no focus control participants. Accomplishment-focused participants did not differ from controls on any measure.     

Connecting the self to traumatic and positive events: links to identity and well-being

Self-event connections in autobiographical narratives help integrate specific episodes from memory into the life story, which has implications for identity and well-being. Previous research has distinguished differential relations between positive and negative self-event connections to psychological well-being but less research has examined identity. In this study, examining self-event connections in emerging adults’ narratives, 225 participants narrated a traumatic and an intensely positive experience and completed questionnaires assessing identity development and well-being. Participants who described more negative connections to self overall had higher psychological distress and identity distress, compared to those who described fewer negative connections. Participants who described positive connections to the self in traumatic events were more likely to have lower psychological distress, higher post-traumatic growth, and higher identity commitment, whereas positive connections in positive events was related to higher identity exploration and marginally higher post-traumatic growth. These findings contribute to a growing body of literature that suggests linking autobiographical memories to self can have differential effects on identity and well-being depending on the valence of the event and the connections made.