Validation of three measures of fear of success

Three new instruments designed to measure fear of success are the Horner, Tresemer, Berens, and Watson empirically derived fantasy-based scoring system, the Pappo Fear of Success Questionnaire (FOS) and the Zuckerman and Allison Fear of Success Scale (FOSS). In the absence of evidence that scores on these instruments are positively correlated or that the instruments do not measure fear of failure, correlations were calculated between these three instruments and between these instruments and the Alpert-Haber Debilitating Anxiety Scale (DAS). It was found that only the FOS and FOSS fear of success instruments were correlated positively and significantly. However, all three fear of success instruments were correlated positively at a significant level with the DAS.     

Mediators of the effects of magnitude of reinforcement

The characteristics of mediational mechanisms based upon magnitude of reinforcement were investigated using rats. In two experiments, two-choice discriminations were trained in which selections of one lever in one external stimulus and a second lever in another external stimulus were reinforced with food. In the first experiment, it was found that the discrimination was acquired more rapidly when one choice was reinforced with a large number of food pellets and the other with a smaller number of pellets than when other configurations of reinforcement magnitude were provided. In the second experiment, reversal of a two-choice discrimination was found to be facilitated by prior exposure of the animals to the reversed relationships between the external stimuli and magnitudes of reinforcement. These results were consistent with predictions from a stimulus or associative view of anticipatory processes based upon magnitude of reinforcement.     

Development of perception of the unity of musical events

Infants' and young children's perception of the unity of musical events was investigated in three studies. In the first two, children watched video displays of two musicians playing different musical instruments side by side in synchrony, and heard a soundtrack in synchrony with both instruments but specific to one. The children judged which instrument was producing the music they heard. Three- to 4-year-olds differentiated instruments from different families but not instruments from the same family. Five- to 7-year-olds additionally differentiated instrument pairs differing in size and pitch range (e.g., violin, cello). In the third study, infants were presented some of the same musical events in order to assess whether specific experience with the instruments is necessary for perceiving the unity of musical events. Looking times revealed that 7- to 9-month-olds detected the correspondence of the sight and sound of some musical instruments. Specific experience with a variety of instruments is evidently not necessary for detecting correspondences of audible and visible properties and for differentiating instruments from different families.     

学生提取自信度判断准确性的发展

采用3×3×2(年龄,材料,性别)三因素混合实验设计,按照学习成绩好、中、差分层随机选取小二、初二、大二学生被试各18名,其中男女各半,利用不同难度的材料,对被试提取自信度准确性的发展进行了考察。被试的判断等级与被试的记忆成绩之间的两点距随年龄而变化。而这种变化在不同难度间有不同的表现。(1)提取自信度准确性从小二到初二发展迅速,表现出显著差异;初二到大二阶段年龄差异不显著。材料难度对不同年级的被试提取自信度判断准确性的影响不同。材料难度越小,提取自信度准确性发展得越早。(2)提取自信度准确性发展的性别差异不显著。     

Method of micro-analysis of sound films of behavior

Initial viewings of sound films of human behavior resulted in the problem of how to divide the seemingly continuous flow of that behavior. This led to the development of methods and instrumentation that would permit variable-contrast scanning of the processes in order to detect points and criteria of segmentation. Since both speech and body motion are to be studied, instruments that would permit the analysis of each at a commensurate level were required. The instruments are primarily combinations of commercially available equipment that is relatively inexpensive yet reliable. These instruments, their use, and some of the preliminary observations are presented.     

亚健康研究进展述评

从亚健康的概念范畴、病因学、症状学、检测和评估、流行病学等角度系统分析了亚健康的研究现状,检讨了在其研究过程中的不足,探索了相应的对策,指出亚健康作为一门新兴学科和一个重要领域,在其学科化建设中的缺憾,以及今后的建构重点。     

面孔社会知觉模型发展的回顾与展望

面孔作为一种复杂的特殊刺激,是人类表达自身情绪、认知他人情感的重要工具和途径。面孔识别是人类社会生活的一项重要技能,在缺乏外部线索时,它有助于我们对他人面孔的熟悉度、年龄和种族等方面有一个较明确的认识,从而更有利于人们社会交往和适应环境。大量研究表明,基于面孔的物理特征可以推断面孔所有者的内在特质,而这一推断又会影响个体的行为决策。因此,对面孔的认知不仅要关注面孔结构化特征,也要关注面孔社会化特征。针对面孔结构化特征,学者们提出了一些经典模型,如Bruce-Young模型、NBC模型等;针对面孔社会化特征,Alexander Todorov及其合作者采用主成分分析法,构建了包含信任度和支配度的面孔社会知觉“二维”模型。Clare A.M. Sutherland及其合作者提出,吸引力和信任度是两个独立的维度,由此构建了包含可接近性、年轻的—吸引力和支配度的面孔社会知觉“三维”模型。本文认为,面孔社会知觉模型从“二维”到“三维”的发展可以从吸引力和信任度两个维度的关系进行探讨。面孔在社会互动中传递着大量的信息,其中较为重要的是面孔信任度和面孔吸引力。其中,信任度评价具有决定性意义,信任一个不值得信任的人可能会给自身造成危害,而没信任一个值得信任的人往往意味着失去了合作的机会;吸引力评价则具有进化上的意义,吸引力往往与潜在配偶的繁殖能力有关,尤其体现在长期择偶关系之中。总结以往的面孔识别模型与本文介绍的面孔社会知觉模型,未来基于面孔特征的识别或特质推断可以从以下几方面进行思考：第一,选取生态化效度更高的面孔刺激材料;第二,进行跨文化检验模型的普适性;第三,从面孔识别模型向面孔社会知觉模型的发展需要进一步探索内在的认知神经机制;第四,进一步拓宽面孔社会知觉的研究领域。     

Interdependence of parenting of mothers and fathers of infants

This study examined the relations among parenting behaviors of 97 coresident mothers and fathers of infants during a dyadic free-play setting. The authors examined the extent to which observed sensitive and intrusive parenting behaviors in mother-child and father-child dyads were related and how perceived marital quality may be associated with the similarity between maternal and paternal parenting behaviors. The authors found support for interdependence of parenting by mothers and fathers. High perceived marital quality was associated with interdependence of sensitive parenting behaviors in mother-infant and father-infant interactions. Negative parenting behaviors by mothers and fathers were interrelated regardless of marital quality. The findings highlight the importance of studying parenting by mothers and fathers as embedded within particular family systems.     

Accuracy of knowledge of family history of cardiovascular disorders

There has been increased interest in the use of familial trends in physical and psychological disorders for identifying individuals at risk; research on individuals who have relatives with certain health problems may contribute to knowledge of etiology. In addition, accurate family health information may allow targeting of prevention and early detection programs to minimize cost and maximize utility. This study compared 292 undergraduates' reports of their parents' and grandparents' histories of six medical disorders with the parents' reports. Results showed moderate agreement concerning the parents' health, but substantial disagreement concerning the grandparents' health. Demographic and personality variables did not predict accuracy of students' reports of parental hypertension. Among the disorders, differences in agreement of reporting arose; the most salient condition, heart attack, had the highest agreement for both parents and grandparents. These results suggested that caution is necessary in evaluating family health information from subjects in research and from target individuals in prevention programs. This problem is especially serious for disorders such as hypertension, which is less salient and which also shows age-related penetrance, with the disorder often not evident until the 5th or 6th decade of life.     

A reanalysis of two scales of tolerance of ambiguity

Important reviews of the tolerance of ambiguity literature have shown that the concept has become overextended and its elements remain unsupported by the confused data collected, and scales with inadequate psychometric performance have been used. In the present study 631 subjects responded to Budner's (1962) test of Intolerance of Ambiguity and MacDonald's (1970) revision of Rydell and Rosen's (1966) Tolerance of Ambiguity Scale. These scales were chosen because they seemed somewhat less suspect than others. Tests of other personality dimensions which the literature reviews suggested were likely correlates of intolerance of ambiguity were also included. Initial results were uneven and inconclusive. After using item analysis to reduce the tests, more logical and consistent results were obtained. These help to clarify the concept, differentiating sharply between its supposed primary and secondary elements. Three studies in which the reduced tests were used with desirable results are reported.     

Evolution of concepts of stress

This essay describes the evolution of stress as a medical scientific idea. Claude Bernard, Walter B. Cannon and Hans Selye provided key founding concepts for the current view. Bernard introduced the idea of the internal environment bathing cells - the milieu intérieur - maintained by continual compensatory changes of bodily functions. Cannon coined the word, "homeostasis," referring to a set of acceptable ranges of values for internal variables. Cannon taught that threats to homeostasis evoke activation of the sympathoadrenal system as a functional unit. Selye defined stress as a state characterized by a uniform response pattern, regardless of the particular stressor, that could lead to long-term pathologic changes. "Allostasis" was introduced as a concept in recognition that there is no single ideal set of steady-state conditions in life; instead, setpoints and other response criteria change continuously. Stress is now viewed neither as a perturbation nor a stereotyped response pattern but as a condition characterized by a perceived discrepancy between information about a monitored variable and criteria for eliciting patterned effector responses. Different stressors elicit different patterns of activation of the sympathetic nervous, adrenomedullary hormonal, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical and other effectors, closing negative feedback loops. This systems concept of stress yields predictions that observation or experimentation can test and that are applicable to normal physiology and to a variety of acute and chronic disorders.     

In support of Pockett's critique of Libet's studies of the time course of consciousness

Susan Pockett presents sound arguments supporting her reinterpretations of data that Libet and co-workers used to support a number of intriguing and influential conclusions regarding the microgenesis and timing of (a) conscious sensory experience and (b) volitionally controlled motor responses. The following analysis, extending and elaborating some of her main arguments, proposes that Libet's experimental methodologies and rationales, and thus also his interpretation of data, are flawed and that neglect or ignorance of methodological and empirical constraints well known to sensory psychologists risks drawing premature or faulty conclusions about the timing of conscious experience.     

Latent class analysis of indicators of intolerance of uncertainty

Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU ) is a transdiagnostic vulnerability factor involved in depression and anxiety symptoms and disorders. IU encompasses Prospective IU (“Unforeseen events upset me greatly”) and Inhibitory IU (“The smallest doubt can stop me from acting”). Research has yet to explore whether subgroups or classes of people exist characterized by different profiles of IU . This study used latent class analysis to identify such subgroups and examined if different classes of IU were distinct in terms of several cognitive vulnerabilities and psychological symptoms. Data were obtained from 519 students completing a 12‐item measure of IU . Four subgroups were identified, characterized by low IU , predominantly Prospective IU , predominantly Inhibitory IU , and high IU , respectively. People in the high IU class reported cognitive vulnerabilities and depression and anxiety more than people in the low IU class. Inhibitory IU was more strongly associated with poor outcomes than was Prospective IU .     

Determinants of infants' understanding of supporting relations: amount of contact versus position of the center of gravity

This study investigated the developmental age at which infants recognize about supporting relations between objects and what information they use to judge whether a supported object will fall down or not. Four kinds of events were used. All events involved support in relation of two boxes, which differed in the amount of contact between objects and the amount of discrepancy between the supported object's position and its most balanced position. 115 infants (3 to 13 mo.) saw 4 events which differed on these two variables. Infants 10 months and older looked longer at the event in which the center of a supported box was just outside of the edge of a supporting box, that is, a support relation in which it was difficult to anticipate whether the box would fall down or not. Analysis suggested that infants' attention is not determined by only one simple stimulus variable but by more complicated variables (such as uncertainty of prediction).     

Preadolescents' recognition of faces of unfamiliar peers: the effect of attractiveness of faces

The authors examined preadolescents' ability to recognize faces of unfamiliar peers according to their attractiveness. They hypothesized that highly attractive faces would be less accurately recognized than moderately attractive faces because the former are more typical. In Experiment 1, 106 participants (M age = 10 years) were asked to recognize faces of unknown peers who varied in gender and attractiveness (high- vs. medium-attractiveness). Results showed that attractiveness enhanced the accuracy of recognition for boys' faces and impaired recognition of girls' faces. The same interaction was found in Experiment 2, in which 92 participants (M age = 12 years) were tested for their recognition of another set of faces of unfamiliar peers. The authors conducted Experiment 3 to examine whether the reason for that interaction is that high- and medium-attractive girls' faces differ more in typicality than do boys' faces. The effect size of attractiveness on typicality was similar for boys' and girls' faces. The overall results are discussed with reference to the development of face encoding and biological gender differences with respect to the typicality of faces during preadolescence.     

情绪自我控制发展的影响因素

情绪自我控制是儿童发展的重要能力,现已成为情绪、动机和发展心理学研究的重要问题.文章通过对现有文献的梳理,提供认识情绪自我控制发展的脉络,并结合已有研究,阐述影响情绪自我控制发展的内外因素.最后,分析了现有研究存在的问题,提出了未来研究发展的方向.     

Effects of repetition of display components on the latency of multiple reports of congruence

Subjects gave grouped multiple reports of the congruence of each member of arrays of one, two or three word-shape or shape-shape pairs, and a measure was taken of the time elapsing between onset of the array and initiation of a multiple yes/no report. Double and triple reports were initiated less rapidly than single reports. Replicated arrays, involving repetition of a display pair, gave similar response times for double and triple reports, and were classified faster than non-replicated arrays requiring the same over report. In the case of non-replicated arrays triple reports were initiated less rapidly than double reports. Both classes of array showed substantial effects for congruence, giving slow response times where all pairs in the array were incongruent or where the lefthand or first reported display was incongruent.     

Empirical investigation of a postmodern model of spirituality within the population of Republic of Ireland

Spirituality is a phenomenon which continues to attract much interest in the Western culture. Throughout the years, it has changed in form and developed in understanding. It has become unprecedentedly broad and embraced by many people, even those who do not consider themselves to be religious. Indeed, spirituality is a subject of debate within academic and non-academic circles regarding its shape, place, function, and definition. This debate and the academic investigation reveals that as a field of study it is undergoing intense and vigorous development. However, there are a number of conceptual deficiencies which need attention, namely; identity and method. The aim of this study is to develop the concept of spirituality according to the current European population. The study applies Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and finds current spirituality functioning as a three-dimensional model composed of transcendence, immanence, and purpose. This concept is predicted by 13 independent variables. The findings conclude that current spirituality is a person’s individual existential dimension, being subject to change through the influence of various psychological, religious and social factors. The findings of the research describe its practical implication within formational social fields such as education, counselling, and psychotherapy.